Chapter 12: Gang Delinquency

1. Chapter 12: Gang Delinquency

2. A. Introduction Peers and Group Delinquency Gangs and Gang Delinquency -Problems in Defining Gangs -Joining Gangs and Getting Out of Gangs -Characteristics of Gangs The Contemporary Gang Problem -The Spread of Gangs -Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gangs -Gang Violence -Drugs and Drug Dealing by Gangs (Overstated?) Female Gang Delinquency Gang Suppression, Intervention, and Prevention Strategies -Suppression -Intervention and Prevention

3. B. Peers and Group Delinquency 1. Are gangs the result of Group Dynamics? a. Paul Lerman published a study in 1967 regarding low-income neighborhoods in New York City which found that about 10% of boys who engaged in delinquent behavior belonged to a gang or a 'named group‘ i. Lerman's research found that the early association with delinquent peers was a significant predicator of later gang entry ii. James F. Short, Jr. argued against Lermans findings, contending that many gang members 'pair off' and engage in delinquency as a group, but usually only hang out in pairs or trios b. The group nature of delinquency has also been examined, although early studies in the 20th century overestimated the amount of delinquency perpetrated by such groups i. The inconsistencies in this data were due to law enforcement officials' tendency to pursue 'youths in packs‘ c. Michael Hindelang helped to counter this bias by relying solely on self-report surveys/data and made several noteworthy findings i. Some delinquent behavior seems to be more likely to be committed with associates (using marijuana and getting drunk) while other forms of deviant behavior are often engaged in alone (carrying a weapon)

4. d. Clear differences in delinquency rates between gang and non-gang members have been reported when gang membership is a known factor in group offending i. Finn-Aage Esbensen and other researchers have found that prevalence rates and individual rates of delinquency are greater for both males and females who participate in gangs, than those who do not participate in gangs ii. Sara Battin and Terence Thornberry corroborate this by stating that participation in most forms of delinquency increase upon a juvenile's entry into a gang e. The Rochester Youth Development Study examined the portion of delinquency in the community that could be attributed to gang involvement and non-gang involvement i. In the aforementioned study, gang members accounted for 86% of the serious delinquent acts, 69% of the violent delinquent acts, and 70% of drug sales ii. In summary, involvement in gangs dramatically increases a juvenile's involvement in delinquency, especially serious delinquency (homicide, extortion, etc.) f. Tom Winfree and his associates are quick to point out that most juveniles who join gangs may already have a predisposition toward violence and that this may explain why members seem to engage in more delinquency (chicken or the egg scenario) i. Do group dynamics influence a juvenile in a gang to engage in more delinquency than a non-gang youth?

5. C. Gangs and Gang Delinquency 1. Problems in Defining Gangs a. Stemming back to the 20th century, the term gang was quite pejorative and was frequently associated with groups in socially disorganized and deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods i. Frederick Thrasher, in his 1927 study of more than 1,300 delinquent gangs in Chicago, found that while no two gangs are alike, they possess a number of qualities that set them apart from other social groups b. According to Thrasher, gangs can be classified (note that he leaves criminality out of his classification) by the following types of behavior: i. Meeting face to face ii. Milling iii. Movement through space as a unit iv. Conflict v. Planning

6. vi. Development of tradition (unreflective internal structure, esprit de corps, solidarity, morale, group awareness, attachment to a specific territory) c. In the 1950's, the image of the gang transformed into one in which large urban groups of males engaged in violent conflict (as seen in the West Side Story) i. According to Joan Moore, the gang is "a friendship group of adolescents who share common interests, with a more or less clearly defined territory, in which most of the members live. They are committed to defending one another, the territory, and the gang name in the status-setting fights that occur in school and on streets“ d. By the 1980's there began to be a public outcry over gangs and the organization and structure of gangs began to be examined in more detail i. Walter Miller defines a youth gang as "a self-forming association of peers, bound together by mutual interests, with identifiable leadership, well-developed lines of authority, and other organizational features, who act in concert to achieve a specific purpose or purposes which generally include the conduct of illegal activity and control over a particular territory, facility, or type of enterprise" (as seen in the movie "colors") ii. However, this definition has been scrutinized by criminologists and law enforcement officials alike for being too restrictive e. According to the Street Terrorism and Prevention Act (STEP) (section 186.22) of the California Penal Code, a street criminal gang is:

7. i. "any ongoing organization, association, or group of three or more persons, whether formal or informal, having as one of its primary activities the commission of one or more of the criminal acts enumerated in paragraphs (1) to (8), inclusive, of subdivision (3), which has a common name or common identifying sign or symbol, whose members individually or collectively engage in or have engaged in a pattern of criminal gang activity“ ii. Note that this code allows law enforcement to arrest/apply pressure to youths for being involved, and/or having knowledge of criminal activities (criminal conspiracy) iii. A legally binding definition of gangs in most states in the exception, rather than the rule, as most states do not have legislatively determined definitions of juvenile gangs f. In 1998, the National Youth Gang Survey asked law enforcement agencies across the country to rank six defining characteristics of gangs in order of definitional importance i. 50% of law enforcement agencies participating ranked "Commits crimes together" as the most important factor in defining gangs (19% has a gang, 10% Hangs out together, 9% Claims a turf, 8% Colors-symbols-other defining insignia, 7% has a leader or several leaders) ii. More than half of all law enforcement agencies also responded that they use a member-based definition, or a method of defining a crime as gang-related when a gang member or members are either the perpetrators or the victims, regardless of the motive iii. About two-thirds used a motive-based definition, or a method of defining a crime as gang-related when committed by a gang member or members in which the underlying reason is to further the interest and activities of the gang

8. g. According to the LAPD, (note that California purportedly has the largest gang problem in the country), there are a number of criteria that are used to determine a member-based definition: i. When incidents involve participants who are identified as gang members/associates ii. When a reliable informant identifies the incident as gang related iii. When a criminal act is reported, and the suspect or victim is on file as an active gang or associate gang member iv. When the investigation reveals that the incident involves a gang member, even if they are not necessarily trying to further the interests or activities of their gang (or if their gang affiliation is not known by the victim or the perpetrator) h. In contrast to this, the Chicago P.D. (note that Illinois purportedly has the second-largest gang problem in the country, directly behind California), uses a motive-based definition (which some argue is too restrictive) i. A homicide is gang-related "only if it occurs in the course of an explicitly defined collective encounter between two or more gangs (a gang fight, for example) ii. For the C.P.D. there must be a gang-related motive for an act to be defined as 'gang-related'

9. 2. Joining Gangs and Getting Out of Gangs a. Most youths who join gangs are influenced to do so by external forces, outside of the realm of family control b. According to Martin Jankowski, there are 6 main reasons why a juvenile may be attracted to a gang: i. Material incentives (money) ii. Recreation (meet girls, drink, hang out) iii. Refuge or camouflage (the gang offers anonymity) iv. Physical protection (personal protection from predatory elements: rival gangs, extortionists) v. A time to resist (a show of defiance to their parents or other figures of authority) vi. Commitment to community (allows a juvenile to demonstrate local patriotism and a dedication to its defense) c. Though there are myths that you are required to be in a gang for life, this is not necessarily true

10. i. Randall Shelden, Sharon Tracy, and William Brown argue that most youths who leave gangs simply do so without being required to give a reason 3. Characteristics of Gangs (Debunking the myths) a. The organizational structure of gangs has evolved over time, and is varied in many cities i. One example of gang structure is the Chicago Vice Lords, whom formed an administrative "board" of sorts to direct the decisions and the day to day operations of the gang ii. James F. Short, Jr. notes that this is highly atypical of most gangs, and argues that many gangs fall somewhere in the middle between crowds and mobs on one hand, and mobs and ordinary organizations on the other iii. In other words, the hierarchical structure of gangs is very rudimentary at best, with most operating at a highly de-centralized level iv. When Gene Muehlbauer and Laura Dodder analyzed a suburban gang known as the "losers" they noted that it operated at a cellular level, with about 10 or 12 members consisting of the nucleus and other members defined in their relation to the core v. Other gangs become so large that they break off into sub-groups called "cliques“ vi. In an analysis of Latino gangs in California, Robert Jackson and Wesley McBride noted that these cliques are typically based on age and often on specialty (for example, gunmen were found to be in cliques with other gunmen)

11. vii. Klikas (as defined by Joan Moore) are age cohorts within Latino gangs that form about every two years and are characterized by salient lifelong membership and reference groups for some, but not all, members of the gang b. While most gangs have clearly defined leaders, the establishment of such leaders varies from gang to gang i. In the mafia-style model of gang leadership, the top authority position is analogous to a general in the military (it also relies on a chain of command structure with a series of ranks and echelons) ii. In the charismatic style of gang leadership, a leader rules by the force of his or her personality and is typically older and stronger than the other members of the gang (rules by a combination of charisma and intimidation) iii. According to Barry Krisberg, the defining characteristic of nearly every gang leader is their superior verbal ability and their ability to 'get stuff done‘ c. In Irving Spergels research, turf is defined as having two main components, identification and control i. While at one time, there were clearly defined boundaries of turf, the mobility and the renovation of many urban communities has blurred such lines ii. Also, graffiti is often used to mark turf, though many gangs attempt to keep a low profile in certain instances, mainly due to police vigilance in recent years

12. d. Though gangs are cohesive and typically share a sense of solidarity with one another, many criminologists say that this does not seem to be the case in recent years i. Malcolm Klein says that the gang members he observed were "dissatisfied, deprived, and making the best of an essentially unhappy situation“ ii. James F. Short, Jr. and Fred Strodtbeck say that most gang members fail at school, their personal lives and that these failings make these juveniles insecure about their status, thus driving them toward the thug life e. The purpose of gangs is not necessarily to commit criminal offenses, and most researchers have found that most gang members spend their time on pursuits other than crime D. The Contemporary Gang Problem 1. The spread of gangs a. Walter Miller identified seven major reasons that account for the dramatic spread of gangs over the past three decades: i. Drugs – The expansion of illegal drug markets increased the solidarity of existing gangs and offered the incentives for the creations of new gangs ii. Immigration – An influx of immigration over the past 25 years has brought in many groups whose children have formed gangs

13. iii. Gang Names and Alliances – In the 1980's the pattern of adopting a common name and claiming a federated relationship to a major gang became increasingly popular (splinter federations from the Blood, Crips, Latin Kings, and Gangster Disciples are popular) iv. Migration – some experts believe that when gangs exhaust a particular drug market, they move to another untapped community in an effort to gain more profits (i.e. urban to suburban) v. Government Policies – During the 1960's, some gangs were allocated federal funds as part of the 'war on poverty' which were provided to these groups to initiate social reform programs vi. Female-headed households – The absence of stable adult male role models created identity problems for male adolescents who then turned to gangs to fill a gap in their lives vii. Gang Subculture and the Media – Gangs are 'hot market items' and the media has been accused of portraying gangs in a flattering light (or as the underdogs of society)

14. b. Researchers such as Cheryl Maxon believes that the spread of gangs can be primarily attributed to the migration from gang members families to the suburbs and the development of loosely associated cliques that stem from this movement 2. Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gangs a. The two most notorious (and primarily black gangs) are the bloods and the crips i. These gangs are typically composed of many sets, (consisting of about 20 to 30 members each though some sets have around 100 or more members) ii. Black gangs have little, in any, formal structure and George Hackett states that "Leadership is usually collective, and internal organization is rudimentary… Most sets are as casually organized as a pickup basketball game“ iii. Most rivalry with other gangs is a result over turf, wrong style of dress, etc. b. Latino gangs are usually composed of youths whose ethnic backgrounds include Mexican, Mexican American, Cuban, and Puerto Rican, etc. i. As was previously mentioned, most Latino gangs are organized around Klikas, separated in age by two or three years ii. In Latino gangs, allegiance to others and the defense of the barrio (or hood) is extremely important and Latino gangs have shown a remarkable longevity over the years, with generations of members arising from the same lineage

15. iii. Membership in a Latino gang is primarily achieved through a 'beat in' initiation to see if a new member is able to defend himself iv.. According to the Regoli/Hewitt the automobile is important to Latino gangs with the main symbol of wealth and status being the low-rider c. Asian gangs are a relatively new development in the United States i. According to Ko-lin Chin, the first Asian youth gangs started appearing in the United States around the 1950, after an influx of Chinese immigration ii. Unlike most other gangs, Asian gangs are primarily concerned with the acquisition of money rather than fighting with other gangs over turf iii. In research compiled by James Vigil and Steve Yun, Indo-Chinese gangs are among the most numerous among Asian gangs today iv. According to Geoffrey Hunt, Karen Joe, and Dan Waldorf, Asian gangs do not usually have a hierarchical structure, or a clearly defined leadership v. Unlike Latino or black gangs, Asian gangs are more likely to initiate members through a process of evaluation or 'kicking back' on a regular basis in an effort to determine whether the recruit should be accepted or not 3. Gang Violence and Other Activities

16. a. Today's gangs are exceptionally violent when compared to the gangs of earlier decades (especially on school grounds) i. Gang operations have been identified at all three levels of schools, including elementary, junior high school, and high school ii. However, most gang violence still occurs off of school grounds b. Walter Miller attributes the growth of gang violence after the 1970's to firearms (specifically the handgun) i. Youth gang homicides have increased since the 1970's c. Are juvenile gangs extensively involved in drug dealing? i. C. Ronald Huff reports that gang members appear to be extensively involved in drug sales, especially cocaine and marijuana (in a study he conducted in Colorado, Ohio and Florida) ii. The National Youth Gang Center reports that although gangs are involved in drug dealing, respondents indicated that gangs did not control or manage most of the drug distribution iii. Malcolm Klein argues that street gangs and drug gangs are not the same, because most street gangs are simply too disorganized to engage in a successful drug trafficking operation iv. Studies conducted by James Inciardi and his colleagues seem to corroborate Klein's argument

17. E. Female Gang Delinquency 1. A Serious Problem? a. Recent studies suggest that girls may comprise anywhere from 4 to 38 percent of all gang members i. Female gang members are much more likely to be involved in delinquency, especially serious delinquency, than are non-gang females ii. Generally speaking, female gang members engage in less delinquency than their male gang counterparts iii. Also, female gang members are less likely to be the victims of gang violence than are male gang members (chivalry?)

18. b. Initiation also varies among gangs who accept females into their ranks i. Some girls are tattooed, some are blessed and others are 'sexed in' (required to have intercourse with multiple gang members) c. Why do females join gangs? i. Many girls seem to look to the gang as an escape from family problems ii. Joan Moore and John Hagedorn report that the parents of gang girls were more likely than boys to come from families that were abusive (in their Los Angeles study) iii. Jody Miller reported that 71% of the gang girls in her study reported serious family problems, such as violence, drug addiction, and drug or alcohol abuse, compared to only 26% of non-gang girls d. Geoffrey Hunt postulates that females who join gangs do so as an extension of their families in an effort to expand their social networks (after interviewing 47 different Latino females who represented 23 different gangs)

19. F. Gang Suppression, Intervention, and Prevention Strategies 1. The strategy of Suppression (is it effective?) a. The use of existing laws allows authorities to charge gang youths with basic criminal offense-crimes against persons, property, and public order-as well as to use conspiracy laws to target gang members who may have been physically present during the commission of a crime i. In some states, gang-related crimes carry maximum sentences (is this really a deterrent?)

20. b. According to a Bureau of Justice Assistance report on urban street gang enforcement, the key elements in gang suppression involve understanding the problem, gathering intelligence into a comprehensive database, and developing strategies aimed at taking down the leaders of said gangs i. A common strategy for law enforcement officials is a technique called a 'neighborhood sweep' in which known gang members are rounded up and questioned (do you think this is harassment, or an effective deterrent?) ii. Another strategy is surveillance of known gang 'hotspots‘ iii. The creation of specialized prosecutor programs that target gang activity have been established throughout the country, most notably in Los Angeles with its Operation Hardcore (est. 1979) c. According to Malcolm Klein, most gang prosecution programs include: i. Transfers to adult court for juvenile gang members ii. Forfeiture of cars used in drive-by shootings iii. Enhanced penalties for crimes committed near schools iv. Enhanced penalties for graffiti writing v. Prosecution for gang recruitment

21. vi. Prosecution for criminal conspiracy under the Federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organization Act (RICO) and similar state laws in cases of drug sales and other applicable crimes 2. Intervention and Prevention Strategies a. Many gang experts are quick to warn that gangs should not be viewed in an us versus them mindset (don't view things in terms of moral absolutism) i. John Hagedorn argues that the growth of gangs in the Midwest can be attributed, in part, to the emerging black underclass and inadequate social programs ii. Growing poverty, and the flight from the cities by both whites and upwardly mobile blacks, has left behind a huge underclass in several inner cities iii. William Julius Wilson argues that this poverty, among other factors, leads to social disorganization b. Experts advocate increased funding and support for social programs targeted toward 'at-risk' youth in the community in order to address the reasons why gangs form in the first place. These programs should include broad based strategies such as: i. Youth outreach programs ii. Establishment of community centers

22. iii. Employment and training assistance iv. School dropout services (G.E.D. attainment programs, etc.) v. Multicultural training for teachers and other professionals vi. Family intervention and training vii. Substance abuse counseling viii. Conflict mediation programs ix. Recreational activities c. Non-governmental organizations such as the Boys & Girls Club of America (BGCA) have developed a program to reach at risk youths i. Their gang prevention through a targeted outreach program combines structured activities with confidence building measures in an effort to deter youth from seeking out gang membership d. 'Designing out' gang violence has also been attempted by police departments around the country

23. i. In Los Angeles, Operation Cul de Sac (OCDS) was an experiment designed to decrease drive-by shootings in certain areas by closing down certain accessible roads where drive-by shootings were the most frequent (by using free-way dividers) ii. The number of homicides in the OCDS area fell significantly over the two years in which this program was run for iii. However, the number of homicides increased after the operation ceased iv. This is a shining example of situational crime prevention -end of chapter 12 notes