Level One:

1. Level One: Eight Parts of Speech

2. Parts of Speech There are eight kinds of words: noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection

3. n v n n pron adj adv adv adj adj adj interj CONJ

4. The Magic Lens Level One: Eight Parts of Speech NOUNS and PRONOUNS

5. N NOUNLatin: nomen, name. The name of a person, place, or thing.

6. Noun: (n.) • Proper nouns (Mozart) are capitalized, and common nouns (epidermis) are not. • Concrete nouns (rock) are names of objects, and abstract nouns (freedom) are names of ideas. • Noun of direct address is a person’s name (Livingston, I presume). • Collective noun (flock) is a noun that names a group.

7. Noun: (n.) • Nouns are singular (sing.) if they describe individual things, or plural (pl.) if they describe multiple things: boat/boats, flock/flocks, kindness/kindnesses.

8. A Classic Noun: Visage The noun visage, that indicates the face or expression on the face, is a true classic noun, that has been in literary use for centuries. Shakespeare used visage in A Midsummer Night’s Dream to describe how Pheobe doth behold “Her silver visage in the watery glass.”

9. A Classic Noun: Visage In modern literature, visage continues to have an important role; Joseph Heller, in his 1955 Catch-22, described “the sheer force of his solemn, domineering visage,” and Robert Penn Warren, in his 1946 All the King’s Men wrote that “Mr. Patton’s granite visage seemed to lean toward me like a monument about to fall.”

10. Four-Level Analysis From Martin Luther King’s Why We Can’t Wait Americans awaited a quiet summer. Parts of noun v. adj. adj. noun Speech: Parts of subject predicate direct obj. Sentence: Phrases: no phrase Clauses: one independent clause, a simple declarative sentence

11. Nouns from Romeo and Juliet BENVOLIO, I. i. Tell me sadness, who is it that you love? MERCUTIO, I. iv. True, I talk of dreams; Which are the children of an idle brain. ROMEO, II. ii. He jests at scars that never felt a wound. JULIET, II. ii. Three words, dear Romeo, and good night indeed.

12. n pron PRONOUN: (pron.) A word that takes the place of a noun.

13. PRONOUN: (pron.) Pronouns refer. They refer to nouns. A pronoun is the word we use instead of repeating the antecedent (noun); this helps us avoid repeating the antecedent (ante: before, cede: go) noun over again monotonously.

14. PRONOUN: (pron.) For example, we don’t say “Hamlet went to New York where Hamlet went to the opera.” How tedious! Instead, we replace the second Hamlet with a pronoun: “Hamlet went to New York where he went to the opera.” By avoiding monotonous repetition of lengthy or compound nouns, pronouns make language fast!

15. PRONOUN Pronouns make language fast!

16. PRONOUN: (pron.) • Pronouns may be masculine gender (he, him, his), feminine gender (she, her, hers) orneuter gender (it). • Pronouns may also have a person and number. Subject Pronouns Singular Plural First Person: I we Second Person: you you Third Person: he, she, it they

17. PRONOUN: (pron.) Antecedent: The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun replaces. The antecedent is named for the fact that it goes (cede) before (ante) its pronoun, and the pronoun refers back to -- or replaces -- the antecedent. Hamlet was he.

18. PRONOUN: (pron.) There isn’t always an antecedent. Though understanding the concept of the antecedent is essential to learning pronouns, it must be said that some pronouns do not operate as antecedent replacers. The indefinite pronouns, for example, do not operate as simple antecedent replacers: Anyone who is registered may vote.

19. PRONOUN: (pron.) Pronoun non-specificity: pronouns are NOT specific. They are general. The pronoun he refers equally to all male organisms in the world! This ambiguity causes problems when we try to force pronouns -- against their universal nature -- to stick to a single reference. If you write he in a sentence, he will attempt to refer to all males mentioned in your paragraph, or even to all males mentioned on your page.

20. Quick review of the parts of a sentence. . . SUBJECT: the noun or subject pronoun that the sentence is about. DIRECT OBJECT: a noun or object pronoun that receives the action of the action verb.

21. Subject pronouns The subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they and are just what their name suggests: we use them to make subjects. Examples: It was I. She and I went to the mall. From Shakespeare: “It is I, Hamlet, the Dane!”

22. Subject pronouns Singular Plural 1st Person I we 2nd Person you you 3rd Person he, she, it they

23. Object pronouns The object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, you, and them, and they are pronouns used as objects. Examples: It hit me. The present was for him and me. We gave him a petunia.

24. Memorize the subject and object pronouns. Seriously. You have to memorize them.

25. Which sentence is correct? He saw he? Him saw him? Him saw he? He saw him.

26. A subjectis a subject,andan objectis an object.

27. In other words . . . Any part of the sentence called a subject uses a subject pronoun. Any part of a sentence called an object uses an object pronoun. A subject is a subject, and an object is an object.

28. Object pronouns Singular Plural 1st Person me us 2nd Person you you 3rd Person him, her, it them

29. Four-Level Analysis From Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass: I am he who aches of amorous love. Parts of subj. v. subj. pron. v. prep. adj. noun Speech: pron. pron.

30. The song of the subjects, and the song of the objects. . . English has musical qualities. There is an important difference between the sound of subject pronouns and the sound of object pronouns, a sound that lets us keep our ideas clear, even in spontaneous speech.

31. The song of the subjects, and the song of the objects. . . I he she we they eye-eee-ayay-eye-ee me him her us them mmm-urrr-uhh-mmm

32. Possessive Pronouns A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that shows possession, and is used as both a pronoun and an adjective in order to indicate ownership or possession. Possessive pronouns include: my, your, his, her, its, our, and their

33. Possessive Pronouns *The possessive case pronouns are already possessive, and therefore do not need apostrophes. The dog found its house. Billy lost his money.

34. Its or It’s? The word its is a possessive pronoun. The word it’s is a contraction of it an is. The apostrophe replaces the missing i. It’s too late to lock its cage. Do not, not, not, use the possessive apostrophe in the possessive pronoun.

35. Interrogative pronouns: An interrogative pronoun is just what its name suggests: it’s a pronoun used to interrogate: who, whose, whom, which, what. Who went to the mall?

36. Demonstrative Pronouns A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun used to demonstrate: this, that, these, those. This is the dog I wish you to walk.

37. Demonstrative Pronouns as Subjects . . . It is a good idea not to use demonstrative pronouns as subjects, because they have a tendency to be vague or confusing. For example, it is better to write, “This theory of gravitation influenced people,” than “This influenced people.”

38. Relative Pronouns A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates an adjective clause to a main clause. The relative pronouns often begin short adjective clauses that interrupt main clauses. The man who followed you turned left. The relative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, that.

39. Who or Whom? Who is a subject, and whom is an object. The composer who wrote the Brandenburg Concerto was Bach. You asked whom?

40. Reflexive Pronoun A reflexive pronoun is a -self or -selves pronoun that reflects back to a word used previously in the sentence.

41. Indefinite Pronouns The indefinite pronouns are general pronouns that do not have definite antecedents: anyone, anybody, each, all. Those ending in -one and -body are singular. I found myself awash on a strange beach.

42. Intensive Pronouns An intensive pronoun is a -self or -selves pronoun that is used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun. I myself agree with that idea.

43. Types of Pronouns Subject: I, you, she, it, we, you, they Object: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, their Interrogative: who, whose, whom, which, what Demonstrative: this, that, these, those Relative: who, whose, whom, which, that Indefinite: anyone, anybody, each, all, etc. Reflexive: myself, yourself, himself, etc. Intensive: myself, yourself, himself, etc.

44. Pronoun/antecedent agreement in number A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. If the noun is singular, the pronoun must be singular also. If Hemingway or Fitzgerald is here, let him in. If Hemingway and Fitzgerald are here, let them in. Someone lost his copy of The Illiad.

45. Pronoun reference problems One of the most common problems writers have with grammar is the pronoun reference error (ref.). The crux of the problem lies in pronouns not doing what we intend them to do: we intend them to refer to only their antecedents. In other words, a pronoun is supposed to stand for a noun. For example: What if we say - “Crick and Watson went to the beach, where he broke his foot.” Well, who broke whose foot?

46. Everyone is singular! Remember that the -one and -body indefinite pronouns are all singular, even though they may not seem to be when you first consider them. Some singular pronouns: someone, somebody, everyone, everybody, each, every. Someone lost his pliers.

47. Someone is not they!

48. His, or her, or his or her? In order to avoid the number disagreement in a sentence such as Someone dropped their muffler, we used to select the masculine gender pronoun his: Someone dropped his muffler. We might call this the macho solution. While this took care of the problem, it created another problem: it tended to ground our language in a male viewpoint.

49. His, or her, or his or her? One popular solution to this problem of masculine bias is the compound gender solution: Someone dropped his or her muffler. Yet, to some ears this sounds awkward. So -- perhaps the most graceful solution is to use the right gender pronoun when possible (Darius rode his chariot) OR use an article rather than a pronoun: Someone dropped a muffler. The latter solution is known as the article escape.

50. This is vague . . . The ghost demonstration error, in which we use the demonstrative pronoun this as a subject of a clause, assuming incorrectly that the reader is sure what this refers to. The ghost demonstration error could cause vagueness or confusion, or could be based on a missing antecedent. This soon resulted in. . . This what?