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Research Methods

This overview examines the significance of scientific methods in research, highlighting how they avoid logical pitfalls such as human intuition and confirmation bias. It covers descriptive methods, including naturalistic observation and case studies, noting their limitations in terms of generalizability. The text further explores inferential methods, emphasizing how experiments can determine cause-and-effect relationships through hypothesis testing and the careful identification of independent and dependent variables. Understanding these methods enhances critical thinking and promotes reliable conclusions.

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Research Methods

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  1. Research Methods Learning How We Know What We Know

  2. Why Scientific Method is Important • Avoids pitfalls in human logic: • Human intuition • Hindsight bias • Overconfidence • Confirmation bias • False consensus effect • Promotes critical thinking & healthy skepticism • Allows for stronger, more reliable conclusions to be drawn

  3. Descriptive Methods • Goal: Describe behavior, and that’s it. • Two main types of descriptive methods: • Naturalistic Observation • Researchers do not intrude on the natural behaviors • Avoids Hawthorne Effect • Examples: Jane Goodall (chimpanzees); Dian Fossey (mountain gorillas) • Cannot draw conclusions about behavior • Cannot generalize to others

  4. Descriptive Methods • Two main types of descriptive methods: • Case Studies • In-depth study of one person/group • Necessary for some types of research: • Child abuse, crime, physical injuries, mental illness, etc. • Examples: Genie, brain injury cases • Cannot generalize to others • Numerous case studies culled together can draw limited conclusions

  5. Inferential methods • Infer conclusions about variables • Stronger than descriptive studies • Main types of inferential methods: • Correlations • Show relationships between variables • Direct (positive) correlation: variables vary together • Inverse (negative) correlation: variables vary separately • CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION!

  6. Inferential methods • Correlations (continued) • Correlation Coefficients: number indicating the strength and direction of a relationship • Range from -1 to +1 • -1 indicates the strongest inverse relationship • +1 indicates the strongest direct relationship • 0 indicates no relationship

  7. Graphing Correlations: Scatterplots

  8. Example of Typical Scatterplot

  9. Inferential Methods • Correlations (continued) • How are correlations obtained? • Surveys: essential elements • Representative sample • Obtained through random sampling • Questions/Statements • Multiple Choice • Yes/No • Rank Order • Likert Scale

  10. Inferential Methods • Correlations (continued) • How are correlations obtained? • Longitudinal studies • Same group over long period of time • Cross-Sectional studies • Several cohort groups at the same time

  11. Problems with Interpreting Correlations Directionality: Third Variable:

  12. Inferential Methods • Main types of inferential methods: • Experimentation • Can determine cause & effect relationships • Strongest methodology available • One factor is manipulated • Another factor is measured • Control of all variables is important! • Confounding variables must be controlled!

  13. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Form a hypothesis • Two main types of hypotheses: • Null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between/among the variables • Scientific notation: H0 • Alternative hypothesis states the predicted relationship between/among variables • Scientific notation: HA • Experiments test the null hypothesis, not the alternative

  14. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Create an operational definition of variables in the hypothesis • Written in behavioral terms • Not designed to be “all-inclusive” • Identifies independent and dependent variables

  15. Inferential Methods • Independent & Dependent Variables • DV: the variable that is measured by the researchers • AKA: the “effect” in the study • Easier to identify, because it’s what the researchers are hoping will happen in the study • IV: the variable that is changed/manipulated by the researchers • AKA: the “cause” in the study • It’s what the researchers hope is causing the DV • Must be something researchers can change • Age, gender, IQ, etc., are not IVs – they are “variables of interest”

  16. Inferential Methods • Identify the following IVs & DVs: • Exposing children to public television improves reading skills. • Rewarding comments will make people work harder on an assembly line. • A young monkey will prefer to spend time with a pretend mother monkey covered in cloth who provides no milk over a pretend mother monkey covered in wire who provides milk. • People who have psychotherapy are less likely to have psychological problems in the future. • Being polite to others tends to make people more cooperative. • Extroverted people are more fun at parties.

  17. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Determine the population of participants • Acquire a representative sample from the population by random sampling. • Divide sample into two main groups through random selection: • Experimental group receives the independent variable. • Control group does not receive the independent variable.

  18. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Ways to group participants: • Within-subjects design • AKA: pre/post design • Ps are compared to each other • Is less susceptible to individual differences • Is more susceptible to “practice effects”

  19. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Ways to group participants: • Between-subjects design • Ps are divided into two groups and compared to each other • Is more efficient • Avoids “practice effects” • Is more susceptible to individual differences • Way to address problem: Matched-subjects design • Match Ps according to a predetermined variable (age, gender, IQ, etc.) and make sure each group shares same individual characteristic.

  20. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Ways to control variables: • Placebo-control groups • Blind studies • Single-blind: Ps don’t know which group they are in. • Double-blind: Ps and people conducting the study don’t know which group the Ps are in. • Helps control expectation effects, demand characteristics, and researcher bias • Control environmental conditions

  21. Inferential Methods • Steps in the experimental process: • Conduct the study • Conduct statistical analysis • Descriptive statistics • Measures of central tendency: mode, median, mean, range, standard deviation • Inferential statistics • Determine statistical significance • p = .05 – There is a 95% likelihood that the results of the study are NOT due to chance.

  22. Ethics • Ethics guidelines keep research from harming participants. • Main principles: • The benefits of the study must outweigh the harm to the participants. • Informed consent must be obtained. • Must know they are in a research study • Must be allowed to back out of the study at any time without penalty • Participants must be debriefed about the true intentions of the study afterward.

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