1. General Deterrence Theory: Assessing Information Systems Security Effectiveness in Large Versus Small Businesses Joseph H. Schuessler, M.S., M.B.A. Doctoral Candidate University of North Texas Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

2. Dissertation Committee • Dr. John Windsor, Chair • Dr. Chang Koh • Dr. Audhesh Paswan • Dr. Victor Prybutok Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

3. Agenda • Introduction • Motivation • Conceptual Model • Literature Review • Research Model • Hypotheses • Methodology • Results • Demographics • Reliability • PLS Model • Hypotheses Summary • Conclusions • Discussion • Contributions • Limitations • Future Research Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

4. In preparing for battle I have always found that plans are useless, but planning is indispensable. (Dwight D. Eisenhower) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

5. Motivation • Organizations are increasing their dependence on information systems (Abu-Musa, 2004; Barsanti, 1999; Kankanhalli et al., 2003) • Information Systems Security (ISS) has never consistently ranked among the top 10 concerns of management (Ball and Harris, 1982; Dickson et al., 1984; Brancheau and Wetherbe, 1987; Brancheau et al., 1996; and Pimchangthong et al., 2003) • Costs associated with security incidents continues to rise (CERT/CC, 2004; CSI/FBI Computer Crime and Security Survey, 2007) • Legislators are paying more attention to security than management (Hoffer and Straub, 1989) • Greater concern from management is needed (Dhillon and Backhouse, 2000) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

6. Conceptual Model Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

7. Literature Review • Countermeasures • “…an array of organizational devices to deter, prevent, or detect security breaches” (Kotulic and Clark, 2004, page 599). • General Deterrence Theory • Posits that individuals can be dissuaded from committing antisocial acts through the use of countermeasures which include strong disincentives and sanctions relative to the act (Straub and Welke, 1998). Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

8. Literature Review (Continued) • Deterrence • Defined by Merriam-Webster as “the inhibition of criminal behavior by fear especially of punishment.” • Prevention • Defined by the American Heritage dictionary as “a hindrance or an obstacle.” • Detection • Defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as “the act or process of discovery.” • Remedy • Defined as “a legal order of preventing or redressing a wrong or enforcing a right” by the American Heritage Dictionary. Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

9. Literature Review (Continued) • Organizational Factors • Organizational Size • Organizational size is positively related to the use of deterrent efforts (Kankanhalli et al., 2003) • Smaller businesses suffer from “resource poverty” which results in less effective ISS efforts (Stephens, 2003) • Industry Affiliation • Industry affiliation related to the use of deterrent efforts (Kankanhalli et al., 2003) • Certain industries more susceptible to computer abuse than others (Hoffer and Straub, 1989) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

10. Literature Review (Continued) • Threats • “…a broad range of forces capable of producing adverse consequences” (Loch et al., 1992, p. 174) • There is a dynamic nature to threats • Only anecdotal and practitioner belief that a relationship between threats and countermeasures exists Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

11. Literature Review (Continued) • Non-Recursive Relationship Between Threats and Countermeasures • The relationship between threats and countermeasures can be likened to a cat and mouse game • Using Complex Adaptive Systems Theory (Holland, 1992) to explain this relationship Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

12. Literature Review (Continued) • Information Systems Security Effectiveness • Relatively little research has focused on ISS Effectiveness • Phelps (2005) developed an instrument which covered multiple security domains • Kankanhalli et al. (2003) developed a more parsimonious construct Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

13. Literature Review (Continued) • Information Systems Security Effectiveness (Continued) • Deterrent and Prevention Efforts positively related with ISS Effectiveness (Kankanhalli et al., 2003) • Detection and Remedy Efforts have not been examined in relation to ISS Effectiveness Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

14. Research Model Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

15. Hypotheses • H1: Organizational Size will be positively associated with the use of each GDT construct: H1a, H1b, H1c, H1d • H2: Industry Affiliation will be related to each GDT construct: H2a, H2b, H2c, H2d • H3: Threats will be positively associated with Organizational Size • H4: Threats will be related to Industry Affiliation • H5: Each General Deterrence Theory construct will be positively associated with ISS Effectiveness: H5a, H5b, H5c, H5d Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

16. Hypotheses (continued) • H6: Threats will be positively associated with each General Deterrence Theory construct: H6a, H6b, H6c, H6d • H7: Each General Deterrence Theory construct will be related to Threats: H7a, H7b, H7c, H7d • H8: Organizational Size will be positively associated with ISS Effectiveness • H9: Industry Affiliation will be related to ISS Effectiveness Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

17. Methodology • Two stages of data collection • Stage 1 - Structured Interviews: • 6 interviews with IS professionals • 337 minutes, 59 seconds • 96 pages • 43,696 words • Interviews were evaluated using MaxQDA • Threats coded following Loch et al. (1992) classification of threats • Countermeasures coded following GDT Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

18. Methodology (continued) • Stage 2 – Online Survey • Survey developed from items identified from interviews • Items evaluated by two practicing security professionals • Pilot test was conducted • Survey administered to AITP using an online instrument • 73 usable responses • 4.9% response rate • Non-response bias Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

19. Methodology (continued) • Data Analysis • Smart PLS was used • ability to handle small sample sizes • PLS does not impose homogeneity or normality requirements on data • Non-Recursive Relationship • Assessed using structural model without non-recursive relationships • Remaining relationships were assessed using a two-stage least squares Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

20. Demographics Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

21. Demographics (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

22. Validity/Reliability Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

23. Validity/Reliability (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

24. Validity/Reliability (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

25. Validity/Reliability (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

26. PLS Model Coefficients Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

27. Research Hypotheses Summary Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

28. Research Hypotheses Summary (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

29. Research Hypotheses Summary (Continued) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

30. Discussion • Smaller organizations tend to use relatively more countermeasures • No relation between Industry and Threats • Industry Affiliation related to each countermeasure technique except remedy • Each countermeasure technique except detection related to ISS effectiveness • Threats were empirically shown to be related to all four countermeasure techniques • Non-recursively, Remedy and Prevention were also found to be related to threats • Organization Size and Industry found to be related to ISS effectiveness Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

31. Contributions • Practitioners: • Can be used as an assessment tool • Can be used prescriptively to adjust security posture • Researchers: • Applies theoretically developed lens to the use of countermeasures • Extends the Information Systems Security Effectiveness construct developed by Kankanhalli et al. (2003) • Empirically tests the non-recursive relationship between threats and countermeasures Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

32. Limitations • Cross Sectional Data • Common Method Bias • Threats are treated holistically Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

33. Future Research • Layers of abstraction: • Siponen identified three layers of abstraction about which an organization’s information systems could be described • These layers could be used to further analyze threats, countermeasures, and ISS effectiveness. • Granular examination of threats: • This study identified four threat factors • Using Loche et al.’s (1992) classification scheme could provide greater insight for practitioners in terms of the sources of threats and the most appropriate countermeasures for each source. • Stage Analysis: • Identifying key stages and characteristics that firms go through as their security posture matures over time. Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

34. Summary • This research had four goals: • Extend the ISSE construct • Explore a unique methodology to the IS discipline • Apply the theoretically developed General Deterrence Theory to an organization’s use of countermeasures • Empirically assess the relationships between threats and countermeasures Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

35. A good plan violently executed now is better than a perfect plan executed next week. (George S. Patton) Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions

36. Questions? Introduction – Literature Review – Methodology – Results - Conclusions