qualitative research

1. Qualitative Research

3. What is Qualitative Research? Denzin and Lincoln (1994) define qualitative research: Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials case study, personal experience, introspective, life story interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic moments and meaning in individuals' lives.

4. The Assumptions of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers are concerned primarily with process, rather than outcomes or products. Qualitative researchers are interested in meaning � how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world. The qualitative researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. Data are mediated through this human instrument, rather than through inventories, questionnaires, or machines. Qualitative research involves fieldwork. The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, site, or institution to observe or record behavior in its natural setting. Qualitative research is descriptive in that the researcher is interested in process, meaning, and understanding gained through words or pictures. The process of qualitative research is inductive in that the researcher builds abstractions, concepts, hypotheses, and theories from details.

5. General Characteristics of Qualitative Research Bogdan and Biklen (1998) describe five general features of Qualitative Research: The natural setting is a direct source and key element Collection is in the form of words or pictures Researchers are concerned with how things occur Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. knowing what to expect Special interest in the participants� thoughts

8. Steps in Qualitative Research All qualitative studies have a distinct starting and ending point. They begin when the researcher identifies the phenomenon and ends when a final conclusion is made. The steps are as follows: Identification of the phenomenon to be studied (foreshadowed problems) Identification of the participants in the study (purposive sample collecting) Generation of hypotheses Data collection (continual observance) Data analysis Interpretation/Conclusions

9. Approaches to Qualitative Research The following are approaches to qualitative research: Biographical Study Phenomenological Study Grounded Theory Study Case Study Intrinsic Case Study Instrumental Case Study Multiple or Collective Case Study Ethnography

10. Generalization in Qualitative Research A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or situation. The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have expectations about the future. A limitation of qualitative research is that there is seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a particular study. Due to this problem, replication of qualitative studies becomes more important than for quantitative studies.

11. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered Qualitative and Quantitative Research can be used together. Descriptive statistics are sometimes used to provide quantitative details in a qualitative study. The most widely held view is that there is no one best method.

12. Ethnography

13. Ethnography Ethno � refers to human culture Graphy � means description of

14. Ethnography A research process used in the scientific study of human interactions in social settings Used extensively in anthropology Has become increasing popular in educational research over the past few years Has been relatively slow to become accepted in agricultural and extension education

15. Ethnography Purpose � to describe and explain a facet or segment of group social life as it relates to education

16. Ethnography Hypotheses and questions � begin as a broad statement about the purpose of the research, then are allowed to emerge more specifically as data are amassed.

17. Ethnography Data - verbal descriptions of people, interactions, settings, objects and phenomena within the context being studies

18. Ethnography Data Sources � the people, settings, and relevant objects being observed

19. Ethnography Data Collection � done by the researcher through observation, sometimes combined with interview

20. Ethnography Data treatment and analysis � presentation of verbal descriptions and/or logical analysis of information to discover salient patterns and themes

21. The Process A question or concern is identified for study A group to study is identified Typically small Typically purposively selected

22. The Process Permission to study the group is obtained The researcher observes the group Privileged observer � just observes Participant observer � functions as part of the group

23. The Process Researcher watches and listens attentively and records as much detail as possible (this is called naturalistic observation). Large amounts of notes are typically generated. This process may last a week or two or could be years.

24. The Process The researcher analyzes the notes, identifies themes, looks for answers to research questions, and makes logical inferences.

25. The Process The final step is to write the research paper describing the process, observations, findings, and conclusion. Often rich descriptions are provided so the readers can make their own interpretations.

26. Ethnographic Research Strengths Looks at the situation holistically May arrive at greater understanding of the problem than other research processes

27. Ethnographic Research Concerns Possible bias on the part of the observer (which leads to validity concerns) Generalizability (how generalizable are the findings from a small, purposely selected group)

28. Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research Credibility � would the group being observed say the findings were credible? Are the findings logical and reasonable?

29. Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research Transferability � Would a reader be willing to transfer the results to another group or setting?

30. Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research Dependability � the researcher accurately describes the context, setting and changes that may have occurred during the study.

31. Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research Confirmability � if there were additional observers, would they describe the situation the same and arrive at the same conclusions.

32. When to Conduct Ethnographic Research To define a problem when the problem is not clear To define a problem that is complex and embedded in multiple systems or sectors To identify participants when the participants, sectors, or stakeholders are not yet known or identified

33. When to Conduct Ethnographic Research To clarify the range of settings where the problem or situation occurs at times when the settings are not fully identified, known, or understood To explore the factors associated with the problem in order to understand it