Pathology of respiratory system

1. Lecture on pathomorphology by Filonenko T.G. Pathology of respiratory system

2. Patterns of Lung disorders: • Airway • Bronchitis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchiolitis. • Tumors / Cancer • Parenchyma • Pneumonia. • Lung abscess, TB • Hyaline membrane dis (HMD & ARDS) • Pneumoconiosis • Tumors / Cancer • Pleura: • Pleural effusion (TB) • Tumors / Cancer * Infections

3. PNEUMONIAS • Pneumonia is defined as acute inflammation of the lung parenchyma distal to the terminal bronchioles which consist of the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli.

4. Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Infections Step 1: Entry • Aspiration(ie Pneumococcus) • Inhalation(ie Mtb and viral pathogens) • Inoculation(contaminated equipment) • Colonization(in patients with COPD) • Hematogenous spread (patients with sepsis) • Direct spread(adjacent abscess)

5. Decreased resistance - General/immune Virulent infection Defective Clearing mechanism Depressed cough and glottic reflexes– Coma, paralysis, sick. Impaired mucociliary transport– smoking, toxin aspiration Impaired alveolar macrophage function Leucocyte dysfunctions. Low Alveolar defense - Immunodeficiency Pulmonary edema – Cardiac failure, emboli. Endobronchial obstruction – foreign body, tumors PATHOGENESIS Step 2: Failure of t defense mechanisms

6. Pathogenesis:

7. Pathogenesis:

8. Etiologic Types: Infective Viral Bacterial Fungal Tuberculosis Non Infective Toxins chemical Aspiration Morphologic types: Lobar Broncho Interstitial Duration: Acute Chronic Clinical: Primary / secondary. Typical / Atypical Community / hospital Pneumonia Types:

9. Lobar Pneumonia: • whole lobe, exudation - consolidation • 95% - Strep pneum.(Klebsiella in aged, alcoholics) • High fever, rusty sputum, Pleuritic chest pain. • Four stages: (*also in bronchopneumonia) • Congestion – 1d – vasodilatation congestion • RedHepatization 2d - Exudation+RBC • GrayHepatizaiton 4d- neutro & Macrophages • Resolution – 8d few macrophages, normal

10. Pathogenesis of Pneumonia Grey Hepatization Resolution Congestion Red Hepatisation

11. Lobar Pneumonia: Congestion

12. Lobar Pneumonia: Red hepat.

13. Lobar Pneumonia: Grey hepat. This is a high-power view of the fibrinous exudate covering the pleural surface. A few macrophages are present.

14. Lobar pneumonia

15. Lobar Pneumonia – Gray hep…

16. Bronchopneumonia (patchy) • Extremes of age. (infancy and old age) • Staph, Strep, Pneumo & H. influenza • Patchy consolidation – not limited to lobes. • Suppurative inflammation • Usually bilateral • Lower lobes common

17. Bronchopneumonia

18. Bronchopneumonia:

19. Extremes of age. Secondary. Both genders. Staph, Strep, H.infl. Patchy consolidation Around Small airway Not limited by anatomic boundaries. Usually bilateral. Middle age – 20-50 Primary in a healthy males common. 95% pneumoc (Klebs.) Entire lobe consolidation Diffuse Limited by anatomic boundaries. Usually unilateral Broncho – Pneumonia - Lobar

20. Broncho – Pneumonia - Lobar

21. Interstitial / atypical Pneumonia • Primary atypical pneumonia in the immunocompetant host (Mycoplasma or Chlamydia) • Interstitial pneumonitis • immunocompromised host : Pneumocystic carinii; CMV • Immunocompetant host: Influenza A • Gross features: • Lungs are heavy but not firmly consolidated • Microscopic features: • Septal mononuclear infiltrate • Alveolar air spaces either ‘empty’ or filled with proteinaceous fluid with few or no inflammatory cells

22. Interstitial Pneumonia: Lymphocyte Infiltrate in alveloar wall

23. Complications of Pneumonia • Abscesses • Localized suppurative necrosis, Right side often in aspiration. • Staphylococcus; Klebsiella; Pneudomonas • Pleuritis / Pleural effusion. • Inflammation of the pleura ( Streptococcus pneumoniae) • Blood rich exudate (esp. rickettsial diseases) • Empyema • Pus in the pleural space. • Septicemia • Organisation (carnification)

24. Abscess formation

25. CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE • (COPD) • Chronic Bronchitis • Bronchial Astma • Chronic Obstructive Emphysema • Bronchiectatic Disease • Chronic abscess • CHRONIC RESTRICTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (CRPD) • Restriction due to chest wall disorder (Kyphoscoliosis, Poliomyelitis, severe obesity, pleural diseases) • Restriction due to interstitial and infiltrative diseases (Pneumoconiosis, Immunologic lung diseases, Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, Sarcoidosis) CHRONIC NONSPECIFIC DISEASES OF LUNGS(CNDL)

26. BRONCHITOGENIC(Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases)1. Chronic Diffuse Bronchitis2. Bronchial Astma3. Chronic Diffuse Obstructive Emphysema4. Bronchiectatic Disease Patho- and morphogenetic mechanisms of lungs PNEUMONITOGENIC (Chronic Intersitial Pulmonary Diseases) 1. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis PNEUMONIOGENIC (Chronic Nonobstructive Pulmonary Diseases) 1. Chronic pneumonia 2. Chronic abscess

27. CHRONIC BRONCHITISChronic bronchitis is present in any patient who has persistent cough with sputum production for at least 3 months in at least 2 consecutive years.Etiopathogenesis- Smoking- Atmospheric pollution- Occupation- Infection- Familial and genetic factors

28. Pathologic changes • Hypersecretion of mucus in the large airways, and is associated with hypertrophy of the submucosal glands in the trachea and bronchi. • Increase in goblet cells of small airways – small bronchi and bronchioles – leading to excessive mucus production that contributes to airway obstruction. • Squamous metaplasia with mucus plugging of the lumen. • Clustering of pigmented alveolar macrophages. • Iinflammatory infiltration. • Fibrosis of bronchiolar wall.

29. Chronic bronchitis: increased numbers of chronic inflammatory cells in the submucosa.

30. Outcomes and complications - Pulmonary emphysema; - Right heart failure and formation of “cor pulmonale”;- Atypical metaplasia and dysplasia of the respiratory epithelium, providing a possible soil for cancerous transformation;- Amyloidosis of kidneys;- Development of Bronchiectasis.

31. BRONCHIECTASIS (BE)BE is defined as abnormal and irreversible dilatation of the bronchi and bronchioles developing secondary to inflammatory weakening of the bronchial wall.

32. Etiopathogenesis of BE 1.     Endobronchial obstruction by tumor, foreign bodies, and compression by enlarged hilar lymph nodes and post-inflammatory scarring, lung fibrosis.2.     Congenital or hereditary factors, including congenital BE, cystic fibrosis, intralobar sequestration of the lung states, and immune cilia and Kartagener’s syndromes.3.     Necrotizing pneumonias, most often caused by tubercle bacillus, staphylococci or mixed infections, measles may develop BE as secondary complication.

33. BE usually affects distal bronchi and bronchioles beyond the segmental bonchi. The lungs may be involved diffusely or segmentally. The pleura is usually fibrotic and thickened with adhesions to the chest wall. Cut surface has honey-combed appearance. The walls of bronchi are thickened and the lumen are filled with mucus.

34. Classification of BE • Cylindrical: long, tube-like enlargements in 1 to 4 type of bronchus. • Fusiform: having spindle-shaped bronchial dilatation. • Saccular: having rounded sac-like distention in 6-10 types of bronchus. • Varicous: having irregular bronchial enlargements.

35. The histologic findings of BE • An intense acute and chronic inflammatory exudation within the walls of dilated bronchi and bronchioles. The mucosa and wall is not clearly seen because of the necrotizing inflammation with destruction. • Desquamation of the lining epithelium and extensive areas of necrotizing ulceration. • Squamous metaplasia of the remaining epithelium

36. Outcomes and complications1.    Obstructive ventilatory insufficiency can lead to marked dyspnea and cyanosis.2.    Pulmonary hemorrhage3.    Pulmonary abscess4.    Empyema of the pleura5.    Metastatic brain abscess6.    “Cor pulmonale” and chronic cardiac-pulmonary insufficiency7.    Amyloidosis are less frequent complications of BE.

37. EMPHYSEMAThe WHO has defined pulmonary emphysema as combination of permanent dilatation of air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles and the destruction of the walls of dilated air spaces.

38. Classification of Emphysema • TRUE EMPHYSEMA • Centriacinar (centrilobular) • Panacinar (panlobular) • Paraseptal (distal acinar) • Irregular (para-cicatricial) • Mixed (unclassified) • B. OVERINFLATION • Compensatory overinflation • Senile hyperinflation (aging lung, senile emphysema) • Obstructive overinflation (infantile lobar emphysema) • Unilateral translucent lung (Unilateral emphysema) • Interstitial emphysema (surgical emphysema) • Bullous emphysema

39. Centriacinar (cenrolobular) emphysemaThe distinctive feature of this type is the pattern of involvement of the lobules; the central or proximal parts of the acini, formed by respiratory bronchioles, are affected, whereas distal alveoli are spared. The walls of the emphysematous spaces often contain large amount of black pigment. Moderate-to-severe degrees of emphysema occur predominantly in heavy smokers and coal workers’ pneumoconiosis , often in association with chronic bronchitis.

40. Panacinar emphysema • Panacinar emphysema occurs with loss of all portions of the acinus from the respiratory bronchiole to the alveoli. This pattern is typical for alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency. • Panacinar emphysema produces voluminous lungs, often overlapping the heart and hiding it when the anterior chest wall is removed. • Lungs is pale pink color. • The crunch takes place when the lungs are cuted; the pitish appears after finger’s pressure.

41. Bullous emphysema The chest cavity is opened at autopsy to reveal numerous large bullae apparent on the surface of the lungs in a patient dying with emphysema.Bullae are large dilated airspaces that bulge out from beneath the pleura.Emphysema is characterized by a loss of lung parenchyma by destruction of alveoli so that there is permanent dilation of airspaces.

42. Microscopic examination • The abnormal fenestrations in the walls of the alveoli. • The complete destruction of septal walls. • The distribution of damage within the pulmonary lobule. • Adjacent alveoli fuse, producing even larger abnormal airspaces. • The respiratory bronchioles and vessels of the lung are deformed and compressed by the emphysematous distortion of the airspaces. • Capillary's reducing may lead to the development of the capillary-alveolar block and pulmonary insufficiency.

43. Pathogenesis of emphysema·       Disease is accompanied with destruction of elastic and collagen fibers of lungs due to action of leukocytes proteases (in inflammation).·       Thus, emphysema is seen to result from the destructive effect of the high protease activity in subjects with low antiprotease activity.·       Main pathogenic mechanism is genetically determined deficiency of alpha-1-Antitripsin

44. BRONCHIAL ASTHMA (BA) Asthma is a disease of airways that is characterized by increased responsiveness of the tracheobronchial tree to a variety of stimuli resulting in widespread spasmodic narrowing of the air passages which may be relieved spontaneously or by therapy.

45. BRONCHIAL ASTHMA (BA)·        A severe and unremitting type of the disease termed status asthmaticus may prove fatal.·        BA has traditionally been divided into two basis types:1.      Extrinsic asthma: there is typically an association with atopy (allergies) mediated by type 1 hypersensitivity, and asthmatic attacks are precipitated by contact with inhaled allergens. This form occurs most often in childhood.2.      Intrinsic asthma: asthmatic attacks are precipitated by respiratory infections, exposure to cold, exercise, stress, inhaled irritants, and drugs such as aspirin. Adults are most often affected.

46. The classic asthmatic attack lasts up to several hours and is followed by prolonged coughing; the raising of copious mucous secretions provides considerable relief of the respiratory difficulty. In some patients, these symptoms persist at a low level all the time. In its most severe form, status asthmaticus, the severe acute paroxysm persists for days and even weeks, and, under these circumstances, ventilatory function may be so impaired as to cause severe cyanosis and even death.

47. This cast of the bronchial tree is formed of inspissated mucus and was coughed up by a patient during an asthmatic attack. The outpouring of mucus from hypertrophied bronchial submucosal glands, the bronchoconstriction, and dehydration all contribute to the formation of mucus plugs that can block airways in asthmatic patients.

48. Histologic findings of BA 1. Thickening of the basement membrane of the bronchial epithelium;2. Edema and inflammatory infiltrate in the bronchial walls, with a prominence of eosinophils;3. An increase in size of the submucosal glands;4. Submucosa widened by smooth muscle hypertrophy; 5. Bronchitis and Emphysematous changes.

49. These lungs appear essentially normal, but are normal-appearing because they are the hyperinflated lungs of a patient who died with status asthmaticus.

50. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Diffuse interstitial fibrosis occurs as a result of different pulmonary diseases such as pneumoconiosis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis (“farmer's lung”, “bird fancier's disease”, “silo filler's disease”)and collagen-vascular disease. It is so called “idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis” or “cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis” or “chronic interstitial pneumonitis”