The Future of Nuclear Energy

1. The Future of Nuclear Energy Brian Toren

2. Glossary of Terminology Fission – Split Into Two Parts, Creates Radioactive Waste Fusion – Combine Two (or more) Parts, Little Radioactive Waste Fission/Fusion Video Pebble Bed Reactor - small pebble size fuel bits Aneutronic Reactor – Fewer Neutrons, Less Radioactive Waste Reshuffling - Replacing old cores with new and rearranging Nuclear Reactor Generations –Acronym List on Page 33 Generation I Reactors – Early Prototype Generators E. G. Hanford Wash Generation II Reactors – Commercial LWRs includes ABWR, EPR, AP600 System 80 + Generation IV Reactors – High Temperature, Liquid Salt Pebble Bed, SMRs Generation V Reactors - theoretically Power Reactors includes LWP. PWR, BWR, CANDU Generation III Reactors – Advanced possible Breeder Reactors - Excess Neutrons Breeds Radioactive Fuel Thorium Reactors – Reactors using Thorium as a fuel Molten Salt Reactors Reactors using Molten salt as a coolant Tokomak - Magnetic Containment Reactor Inertial Confinement (laser) Reactors (ICR) National Ignition Facility ICR facility at Livermore Pressure Containment Spheromak Contains Video Cold – Never Proven Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) Thermal Reactors Fast Reactors

3. BreederReactor A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor capable of generating more fissile material than it consumes[1] because its neutron economy is high enough to breed fissile fuel from fertile material like uranium-238 or thorium-232. In more recent decades, breeder reactors are again of research interest as a means of controlling nuclear waste and closing the nuclear fuel cycle. Fast breeder reactor or FBR uses fast (unmoderated) neutrons to breed fissile plutonium and possibly higher transuranics from fertile uranium-238. Thermal breeder reactor use thermal spectrum (moderated) neutrons to breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium (thorium fuel cycle). Due to the behavior of the various nuclear fuels, a thermal breeder is thought commercially feasible only with thorium fuel, which avoids the buildup of the heavier transuranics

4. Thorium Fueled Reactor The thorium fuel cycle is a nuclear fuel cycle that uses the naturally abundant isotope of thorium, 232Th, as the fertile material. In the reactor, 232Th is transmuted into the fissile artificial uranium isotope 233U which is the nuclear fuel. Unlike natural uranium, natural thorium contains only trace amounts of fissile material (such as 231Th), which are insufficient to initiate a nuclear chain reaction. Additional fissile material or another neutron source are necessary to initiate the fuel cycle. In a thorium-fueled reactor, 232Th absorbs neutrons eventually to produce 233U. This parallels the process in uranium breeder reactors whereby fertile 238U absorbs neutrons to form fissile 239Pu. The used nuclear fuel is formed into new nuclear fuel.

5. Thorium Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages: (1)thorium's greater abundance, (2)superior physical and nuclear properties, (3)better resistance to nuclear weapons proliferation[1][2][3] (4)reduced plutonium and actinide production.[3] Disadvanages (1) Startup fuel. Require a considerable amount of U-233 for the initial start up. Currently there is very little of this material available. (2) Salts freezing. The fluoride salt mixtures have high melting points, of 300 to over 600 degrees Celsius. (3) Beryllium toxicity. The proposed salt mixture FLiBe, contains large amounts of beryllium, a poisonous element (3) Radiation. primary fuel salt will produce highly radioactive fission products that produce a high gamma and neutron radiation field. (4) Waste management – Radioactive waste less suited long term storage form

6. Molten Salt Reactor Primary coolant, or even the fuel itself, is a molten salt mixture. MSRs run at higher temperatures than water-cooled reactors The nuclear fuel may be solid or dissolved in the coolant itself. The fluid becomes critical in a graphite core. Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (1965–1969) was a prototype for a thorium fuel cyclebreeder reactornuclear power plant. One Generation IV reactor design is a molten salt-cooled, solid-fuel reactor initial reference design is 1000 MW

7. Generation 4 Reactors Theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched Focus is on the six most promising technologies Three systems are nominally thermal reactors Thermal Reactors use slow or or thermal neutrons In a thermal reactor a neutron moderator is used to slow the neutrons, These are more likely to be captured by the fuel. . Three are fast reactors A fast reactor directly uses the fast neutrons, no moderation. It requires fuel rich in fissionable material Both can cooled with gas, sodium, lead and other methods

8. Pebble Bed Reactor Gen 4 Reactorr Graphite-Moderated, Gas-Cooled, Nuclear reactor. The Pebbles Are Spherical Uranium Fuel Elements Gas Cooled, E.G, Hydrogen Nitrogen or CO2 Passively Safe No Danger of Releasing Radioactive Gas Mobile Small 15Mw Reactor in Germany from 1966 to 1988 China Building Commercial Plant by 2017

9. Pressure Containment Spheromak 5 Min Video The resulting shock wave compresses a plasma target, called a spheromak, to trigger a fusion burst Thermal energy is extracted with a heat exchanger and creates steam • Pneumatic pistons ramming a metal sphere create an acoustic wave in molten metal Process repeated every second to create continuous power Demo 24 piston machine in two years 200 piston machine in 4 years

10. Other General Fusion Projects By 2020 (Maybe) Inertial Electrostatic Confinement (IEC ) Beam Fusion Reactor -., fuels that produce little or no radioactivity. Magnetized Focus Fusion.

11. Fusion Fusion is to be the savior of Nuclear Energy. Much research is ongoing from building lab models to building commercial demonstrable sites Estimated times for commerical operation varies from 20 to 40 years.

12. Aneutronic ReactorThree Min, First Video Fewer Or No Neutrons Little or No Radioactive Waste Plasma requires containment, That’s The Rub

13. Laser Containment National Ignition Facility ICR facility at Livermore Video of Ignition Five Min

14. Example – Tokomac Magnetic Confinement Tokamak Video - Six Min

15. Fusion at the Skunk Works14 Min, Second Video • Buid on An Assembly Line • Portable • Demo by 2022

16. Cold Fusion Chemical Fusion at room temperatures has been claimed in many experiments, but has never been duplicated

17. Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) The Strong Force Particle physicists have evidently been correct all along. "Cold Fusion" is not possible. However, via collective effects/ condensed matter quantum nuclear physics, LENR is allowable without any "miracles." The theory states that once some energy is added to surfaces loaded with hydrogen/protons, if the surface morphology enables high localized voltage gradients, then heavy electrons leading to ultra low energy neutrons will form-- neutrons that never leave the surface. The neutrons set up isotope cascades which result in beta decay, heat and transmutations with the heavy electrons converting the beta decay gamma into heat. - See more at: http://futureinnovation.larc.nasa.gov/view/articles/futurism/bushnell/low-energy-nuclear-reactions.html#sthash.3XTiklpB.dpuf • Lenr status Beta decay releases energy

18. Reactor Comparison Table Chart on Page Nine of 70

19. Summary Video Mark Helpar 19 Minutes Video 3rd on page Emerging Nuclear Innovations Triaga, a nuclear reactor designed for teaching purposes. Accerator- Driven Thorium reactors, high-current, high-energy accelerators or cyclotrons used to produce neutrons from heavy elements.