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1. 1 Public relations past, present, and future September 26-28, 2006
2. 2 But first Finishing up discussion of mass communication theories (as they relate to PR)
Magic bullet theory
Limited effects paradigm
Uses and gratifications
Agenda-setting
3. 3 Magic bullet theory of propaganda (1910s-1930s) Simplistic propaganda theory: media stimuli work like magic bullets (or hypodermic needles)
people are simply targets, unwitting victims
people are powerless to resist influence
no matter who they are
4. 4 Magic bullet (ctd.) Media messages penetrate peoples minds
and instantly and directly create associations between strong emotions and specific concepts
5. 5 Main assumptions underlying magic-bullet theory External stimuli, like those in mass media, can condition anyone to behave in whatever way a master propagandist wants
Built on stimulus-response (behaviorist) model
6. 6 Assumptions (ctd.) No matter what your level of education or social status
magic bullets (media messages) penetrate your defenses and transform your thoughts/actions
Rational mind is mere faade
7. 7 The end of magic bullets 1940s-1960s: limited effects paradigm
Sweeping new approach to mass communication study
Recognized that many factors impede power/success of media
What might these be?
8. 8 Underlying limited effects Individual differences
Social-group identification
Two-step flow
Opinion leaders and opinion followers
View of mass communication as transmission through conduit
9. 9 The famed transmission model
10. 10 Embracing the transmission model Intended to explain broadcast transmissions
Quickly adopted by interpersonal comm scholars as well
Easily grasped concepts
source
message/signal
channel
receiver
noise
feedback
11. 11 Whats missing from this model?
12. 12 Any consideration of the audience! And the likelihood that not all messages are received identically by all audience members
Consider alternatives that have been offered
Notably, the encoding/decoding model
13. 13 By 1960 Most remnants of mass society and magic bullet theory long forgotten
Including received belief that media have direct, powerful effects
Academia and business embrace limited effects paradigm
Foundation laid for active audience approaches
14. 14 An important active-audience theory: uses and gratifications Rather than focusing on power of the media (or message makers),
U&G takes the viewer as the starting point
Rather than talking about how media influence viewer
U&G focus on how viewer exercises choice
15. 15 Key U&G claims People choose media that suit them
People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and are pleasurable to them
Needs and gratifications vary from person to person, from situation to situationHow/why might the PR profession embrace (and leverage) this theory?
16. 16 But! Not every mass communication scholar is ready to walk away from an understanding of the media as powerful
New (1960s-present) powerful effects theories simply take different approaches
One of the most influential:
agenda-setting theory
Originators: McCombs & Shaw, 1972
17. 17 A now classic line that M & S quoted to summarize AS: The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about (Bernard Cohen, 1963).
18. 18 Lets unpack this The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.
What did Cohen mean? (think vs. think about ??)
19. 19 Major claims of original agenda-setting theory (1972) Media agenda determines the public agenda
Whats coveredand emphasizedin news becomes what people say is important to them
Agenda-setting is not done by media purposely or deliberately
That is (according to McCombs & Shaw), media dont set out to influence readers
20. 20 Original theory (ctd.) Still, the media have unintended but powerful effects:
Media determine what are the main issues of the day (in peoples minds)
The press sets the agenda of public discussion
and this sweeping political power is unrestrained by any law.
21. 21 As a McCombs & Shaw contemporary* put it It determines what people will talk about think aboutan authority that in other nations is reserved for tyrants, priests, parties, and mandarins.*Theodore White, writing about press coverage of presidential campaigns
22. 22 Why was this groundbreaking (in early 70s?) Challenge to limited-effects paradigm
Reaffirmed press power
Yet maintained that individuals are still free to choose!
Paradox: agenda-setting theory was new in 1972, but echoed an idea offered 50 years earlier
23. 23 Gate-keeping (Robert Park, 1922) Out of all the events that happen in a given day
newspapers editor chooses certain items for publication that he regards as more important or more interesting than others
the remainder he condemns to oblivion (waste basket)
enormous amount of news killed every day
In this way, editors (and media in general) are gatekeepers
They determine what gets in and what stays out
24. 24 Criticism of original AS theory How do you know the relationship is causal in THIS direction?
Media agenda ? voters agenda
Isnt it possible that it works the other way?
Voters agenda ? media agenda
(translation: media give their audiences what they want)
25. 25 1990s-2000s updates of agenda-setting theory We should talk about 3 agendas
Media agenda: what media say is important
Public agenda: what regular people say is important
Policy agenda: what lawmakers say is important (by enacting laws)
Flow of influence (who sets whose agenda) goes in all directions
26. 26 Another important update Original claim: media tells us not what to think (what opinions to have) but what to think about (which issues are important)
New research shows: media DO tell us what to think (what opinions to have)
but the way they do so is subtle
and is often called framing today
27. 27 Framing Whats a frame?
The central organizing idea for news content that
supplies a context
suggests what the issue is, through the use of
selection
emphasis
exclusion
elaboration
In other words, the way the media present a story will shape our opinions about its content
28. 28 So what happens? When the media select, emphasize, exclude, and elaborate
they not only make some issues more salient
they also transfer the salience of specific attributes associated with the issue/person/event from object to the pictures in our heads
How might PR come into play here?
29. 29 Hint What is a primary function/purpose of public relations?
To shape public opinion
To create, control, manage image of or news of an organization
30. 30 Thus, centrality of AS and framing to PR Who sets the agenda for the media?
Who frames the issues for the media
This is where PR steps in
Largely, an attempt to do just that:
Set the medias agenda
Frame issues to suit an organizations needs/desires
31. 31 PR: past, present, future
32. 32 PRs ancient roots Ancient Greece (B.C.)
Study of rhetoric: communication intended to persuade (and in so doing, shape public opinion)
appeals to
Logos
Ethos
Pathos
Ancient Rome
Concern with vox populi
33. 33 Public relations principles in the Old World church Spread of Christianity (especially 1st through 3rd centuries)
Invention of printing press (1450s)
And with it, easy dissemination of ideas (most prominently, the bible)
Catholic Churchs Congregatio de Propaganda Fide
Note the key word in that name!
34. 34 Early US public relations for political ends 1773: Boston Tea Party
A brilliant public relations event
Or, more accurately, a pseudo-event
Why?
1774-1776: Thomas Paines pamphlet Common Sense (and his later pamphlet series, The American Crisis, during the war)
Sense called for revolution; Crisis urged colonists to continue struggle
1776: Declaration of Independence
Itself a news release, sort of
35. 35 Early US political PR (ctd.) 1787-1788: Federalist Papers
Position papers supporting ratification of Constitution
Appeared in newspapers under pseudonym Publius (but actually written by Hamilton, Madison, & Jay)
36. 36 Progressive Era (1890s-1917) and its aftermath Major political/societal/commercial shifts in US, starting at turn of century
helped lay groundwork for birth and growth of public relations as an industry
Growth of huge corporations (including monopolies)
Which leads to increased government regulation of business
And to growth of labor unions
All sides want their opinions heard
37. 37 Progressive Era trends (ctd.) Increased political activism
Immigration (1880s-90s)
immigrants want voice in US society
their opponents also want voice
Newspapers evolve into social advocates
38. 38 Progressive Era (and beyond) trends (ctd.) Spread of democracy
Women gain vote (1920)
18-year-olds gain vote (1960s)
Civil rights movements (1950s-60s)
Vietnam war supporters and protesters
All brought about with increased public communication and persuasion about their issues
39. 39 Early years of PR industry While the attempt to shape and influence public opinion goes back millennia
There was no organized public relations profession/industry until 1880s-90s
1888: Mutual Life Insurance Company creates literary bureau to publicize its services
1889: George Westinghouse hires news reporter to influence public opinion (for his products, against Edisons)
40. 40 Early PR agencies: early 1900s 1900: first PR agency, the Publicity Bureau, opens in Boston
Provides services to clients (AT&T, railroads) that want their own opinions to be heard (in an age when big corporations were publicly criticized)
1902: publicity business opens in D.C.
1904: Parker & Lee Agency opens in NYC
41. 41 Problems facing early agencies (which all folded quickly) Formalization of publicity new; not understood
Hard to turn a profit
Worked against their own credibility
Put out stories about their clients that presented clients viewsbut didnt worry too much about accuracy!
Goal was to get ink at any cost (even credibility), and it backfired
42. 42 Other problems early PR agencies faced Resistance from publishers
PR agents used bribes, gifts, stunts that seemed unethical
Many PR agents were ex-journalists; current journalists resented their changing sides
(still an issue today!)
43. 43 Growth of PR industry: first half of 20th century
44. 44 Teddy Roosevelt (president 1901-1909) First US president to consciously court media in order to get his version of events and policies into the press
45. 45 Woodrow Wilson and the Creel Commission Wilson: US president 1913-1921
Successfully kept US out of WWI during his first terma popular action
But then rallied US citizens support for entering war early in 2nd term
46. 46 How did Wilson turn public opinion around by 180 degrees? With public relations!
Formed Committee for Public Information (a/k/a Creel Commission, headed by ex-journalist, now PR pro George Creel)
CPI helped Wilson articulate a pro-war policy
And published millions of pamphlets (and some films) distributed during 2 years US was in war:
Why Were Fighting
47. 47 The two fathers of the modern PR industry Ivy Lee
Edward Bernays (with wife Doris Fleischman Bernays)
48. 48 Ivy Lee One of the two fathers of the PR industry
Formed his own publicity bureau (1904)
Wrote declaration of principles
Publicity firms, such as his, should be open, honest, not secretive
Supply the press and the public with accurate information that is of value and interest
Problem: accurate information he provided reflected his clients desired views, but not always truth
49. 49 Ivy Lees early work Helped Pennsylvania Railroad after an accident (1906)
Advised them to admit mistakes that caused accident and be open with the press
This was the exact opposite of how big companies handled crises before his day!
50. 50 Lees early work (ctd.) Helped John D. Rockefellers Standard Oil company with image issues during miners strike
Provided managements side of story to press
Helped miners with working conditions AND kept union out of the mines
Turned around J.D.R.s image
From greedy industrialist to philanthropist (handed out dimes to children)
51. 51 Lees later work Gained public support for aviation (thanks largely to popular hero Charles Lindbergh)
Helped General Mills launch Wheaties, Gold Medal Flour; helped GM with image of Betty Crocker
Worked for German industrialists in early 1930s, as Hitler was coming to power
And thus, Lee died with reputation as Nazi sympathizer
52. 52 Edward Bernays Nephew of Sigmund Freud
Popularized phrase public relations counsel to describe what he did
Had been on Wilsons Creel Commission (CPI)
Then, when war was over, accompanied President Wilson to Versailles Peace Conference
His job: deal with reporters, disseminate Presidents position
This turned CPI into Wilsons PR machine
53. 53 How Bernays described the role of a public relations counsel As opposed to propagandist or even publicist or press agent (which all had negative connotations)
a PR counsel (said Bernays, in 1923) provides publicity direction, which means
Directing the actions of a client to result in the desired publicity
Giving professional advice to clients to better their public relationships, regardless of whether this generated publicity
54. 54 Some of Bernayss clients Procter & Gamble
CBS radio
General Motors
Most famously (or infamously), the American Tobacco Company
55. 55 Lee, Bernays, and public opinion Both of these fathers recognized that public opinion is flexible
And not always rational!
Recognized that, in hands of the right experts, leaders, and PR counselors
public opinion was ready for shaping in ways that people could get behind
56. 56 Lets look at these early days Video: Toxic Sludge is Good for You
57. 57 Other PR pioneers Arthur Page & Theodore Vail of AT&T
Revolutionized corporate communications
Recognized that employee relations may be as important as customer and media relations
Also recognized that even public utilities have to please their customers (and maintain positive public image)
58. 58 Mid-20th century landmarks 1940s
Office of War Information promotes US entry into WW2 (and individual enlistment)
Forerunner to US Information Agency (d. 1999)
PRSA (Public Relations Society of America) formed
59. 59 1960s NAACP and CORE (Congress of Racial Equality)
Civil-rights organizations
Ralph Nader (then consumer advocate)
book Unsafe at Any Speed: scathing critique of automobile industry (safety issues)
creates Project on Corporate Responsibility
PR is now used not only to serve corporations, but to keep them in check!
60. 60 1970s PR grows, takes on higher public profile
Pro: International Association of Business Communicators formed
Con: bad PR blamed for Nixons image problems (including handling of Watergate crisis)
61. 61 PR in the digital age Internet/WWW make communication of companys image faster and easier
But also mandatory
No organization can be withoutat leasta web site today
And many choose to also
Advertise online
Sell products directly online (e-commerce)
62. 62 Digital technology: a tool, only Capacity to
Put up a web site
Make available your press releases
Send your press releases, newsletters, brochures, etc. via e-mail
SHOULD mean that youre getting your organization closer to your publics
But doesnt necessarily mean youre doing it well
63. 63 A PR-smart web site Is designed to address specific purposes
Not just to have a site
Knows and responds to readers interests
Is updated regularly
Is enjoyable and engaging to visit
Is user-friendly
Is written well
Has well chosen links (in and out)
Is promoted by your other IMC elements!
64. 64 Problems with reliance on Internet/WWW for PR efforts Difficult to targetand reachthe right public(s)
Anyone can go to your web site
How do you get desired audiences to do so?
65. 65 Another problem with excessive reliance on WWW Too many gatekeepers
(recap: whats a gatekeeper?)
(recall mass communication theory, esp. agenda-setting and framing)
If I (as a consumer, media user) can customize what comes into my e-mailbox, Im also keeping undesired information out
e.g., Times news tracker service
66. 66 And some more WWW-reliance problems The Web still doesnt reach everyone
in US: senior citizens
Outside US: non-English-speaking countries
The Web is not considered reliable/credible news source (compared to newspapers)
Spam, viruses, hackers
Web is passivea web site doesnt go to your publicsthey have to seek it out
67. 67 Other tech innovations that help the PR industry Satellite media tours (SMTs)
A celebrity or corporate spokesperson can talk personally with individual reporters (or TV stations) without having to travel
CD-ROMS can provide a more exciting message than a written news release
Wireless devices (cell phones, Blackberry) can be used to send PR information