The Study of Religion

1. The Study of Religion September 2012

2. Comparative Religion • Mircea Eliade (1907-1986) was an early scholar of “comparative religion” – the study of the similarities and differences between religious traditions • Eliade argued that religions differentiate the world between the “sacred” and “profane” • Sacred: the realm of gods and/or ancestors which contains all meaning • Profane: the realm of the ordinary, which has value and meaning only in relation to the sacred • This distinction is not made by all cultures

3. Understandings of the Divine • The divine is understood in many different ways in different traditions • Theism: Believing in a god or gods (including goddesses) • Many, but not all, religions can be described as theistic • Monotheism: belief in a single god • Polytheism: belief in multiple gods • Monism: belief in a sacred “oneness” that underlies all phenomena • Nontheism: ultimate reality is not viewed as a personal divinity, or not acknowledged at all • Incarnation: belief that the divine can appear in physical form in the world

4. Immanence and Transcendence • Different traditions may view sacred reality as being “immanent” or “transcendent” • Transcendent: the divine exists outside of the material universe • Immanent: the divine exists within the world • Some religions view the divine as having both characteristics

5. Approaches to Religion • Atheism: related to non-theism; belief that the divine, or a particular god, does not exist • Universalism: belief that all religions refer to the same Ultimate Reality • Exclusivism: belief that one particular religion is “true” and others are “false” • Agnosticism: the belief that humans do not or cannot know the nature of the divine

6. Ritual • A ritual is an act associated with a religion that is repeated and has an established structure, to some degree • Rituals are often group activities, but can be conducted alone in some cases • Rituals may be led by specialists (priests, shamans, etc.) or by laypersons • Rituals may have different purposes, including, but not limited to, the following: • To honour or worship the Divine • To make a request or appeal to the Divine • To initiate a person into a group • To mark transitions in different stages in life • To affirm group cohesiveness • To evoke or connect to sacred, “mythic time” (Eliade)

7. Symbol • Many religions see the Divine as ineffable – beyond the capability of words to describe • In such cases, symbols are used to signify the Ultimate Reality • For example, God is sometimes called “Father” or “Mother,” and the realm of the Divine is described as being “on high” • While each religion makes use of a different set of symbols, some have noted recurring themes from culture to culture • Carl Jung (1875-1961) argued that within the human psyche is a reservoir of symbols that resonate with people regardless of culture; these are called “archetypes” and reside within the “collective unconscious”

8. Myth • Myths are stories associated with religions which express ideas about the nature of the universe, history, humanity, etc. • Scholar of religion Joseph Campbell (1904-1987) studied world mythology extensively, and argued that myth can serve four functions: • Mystical/metaphysical: bringing about a sense of awe at the universe • Cosmological: explaining nature and natural processes • Sociological: affirming the social order and teaching values and ethics • Psychological: guiding individuals through life and transitional periods

9. Monomyth • Joseph Campbell believed that many myths around the world were variations of a single “monomyth” of a hero’s journey and transformation, often involving Jungian archetypes • Many mythic accounts of religious figures follow this pattern, according to Campbell • The idea of the monomyth has been criticized as an excessive generalization

10. Approaches to Religion • Within each religion, there are many ways of being religious. • Orthodox: “right belief;” adhering to the doctrines and law of a religion according to its “historical practice” • Absolutism: to practice orthodoxy and resist contemporary influences; often involves literalism and exclusivism • Literalism: belief that a sacred text or doctrine is factually true • Fundamentalism: a term often used to refer to religious extremists and absolutists • Religious liberalism: a more flexible approach to religion that acknowledges cultural context and change

11. Historical-Critical Studies • In the 18th century, scholars began to examine the Christian Bible from a historical standpoint • This approach has been undertaken more recently with other religious texts, but is not always well-received by orthodox believers • Historical critical method aims to: • Determine the original or most reliable version of a sacred text • Understand the historical context and sources of a text • Determine the intended audience of a text • Study the original language of the text • Understand passages from the text in terms of genre • Trace the redaction, or development history, of a text • Examine a text’s contemporary relevance

13. Science and Religion • The onset of modern science has called into question some religious doctrines, particularly cosmological myths, which some orthodox believers hold to be literally true • The success of science has led to the scientific materialist worldview, which challenges the existence of the Divine as traditionally understood in Western society • Many religious believers, especially liberals, see no conflict between science and their faith; however, some orthodox believers may perceive a threat by science to traditional religious belief

14. Evolution • A famous example of conflict between religion and science is the continuing controversy generated by Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) • Christian literalists viewed evolution as contradictory to the Genesis story, and sought to have alternative accounts of human origins taught in schools, including Creationism or Intelligent Design • Although the controversy continues, many Christian churches officially accept evolution

15. Four Positions in the Science-Religion Debate • Conflict: religion and science are not reconcilable • Non-Overlapping Magisteria: religion and science address separate issues • Dialogue: religion and science must be interpreted in relation to each other • Integration: religion and science overlap and are compatible

16. Women and Religion • Many religious traditions emerged from patriarchal (male-dominated) societies • Women have limited roles in the leadership of many religions, and religions have often restricted the roles of women in society • Abrahamic religious language and art often portray God as being male • Although women have historically played major roles in religion, women’s voices are under-represented in much religious literature • Similarly, many religions are strongly heteronormative • Religion continues to be invoked to justify unequal status for women and LGBTQ persons in society

17. Feminism and Religion • The onset of the feminist movement revealed the patriarchal nature of many institutional religions • Some feminists argue that religion should be rejected, as it provides justification for patriarchal oppression and misogyny • Other feminists seek to create new forms of religion, or recover old religious traditions, that celebrate feminine aspects of the divine • Still others work within their religious traditions to transform them into more egalitarian institutions • LGBTQ activists take similar approaches to religion

18. Other Negative Aspects of Organized Religions • Religions have often divided humanity • Sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) describes the “routinization of charisma,” in which a religion becomes institutionalized following the death of its founder • While many religious leaders taught love and justice, the process of institutionalization may lead these values to be overshadowed by dogmatism and exclusivism • Religious belief may lead people to uncritically place their trust in unscrupulous individuals claiming to speak for the religion • Religion may lead to exaggerated feelings of guilt that can negatively affect mental health • Religion can lead to escapism and acceptance of injustice

19. Religion and Violence • Religion can be used to justify violence against insiders (“heretics”) or outsiders (“nonbelievers”) • Political scientist Samuel Huntington (1927-2008) predicted a “clash of civilizations” between the various cultural-religious blocs of the world; this theory remains controversial • A more informed perspective on the religions of the world can counteract bigotry and intolerance, and allows for mutual respect and coexistence in an increasingly cosmopolitan world!

20. For Next Week • Read Living Religions, Chapter 2: Indigenous Sacred Ways