網上有問題的內容 ( Problematic online materials )

1. 網上有問題的內容 (Problematic online materials) pornography Gambling Other harmful materials Hate speech 應不應限制，甚至禁止？ 如應該，怎樣做？

2. 3main types of pornography Hard-core pornography Soft-core pornography Child pornography Obscene Indecent Involved child abuses/ exploitations Protected by the First Amendment: may not becompletely banned Completely outlawed: possession not allowed Not protected by the First Amendment: banned 色情內容 – 美國情況

3. 色情內容 – 美國情況 • Indecency(香港譯不雅）: • 報章內容不規管 • 廣電節目不容許 • 定義 (限廣電用） • Language or material that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities (with reference to broadcast medium only) • 對性活動或排泄的表現或描述， • 以當時的社區標準而言，屬明顯冒犯的

4. 色情內容 – 美國情況 • What is obscene?（香港譯淫褻） • 美國法院判斷的標準 • 1) whether the average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest; • 2) whether the work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conductspecifically defined by the applicable state law; and • 3) whether the work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literacy, artistic, political, or scientificvalue

5. 色情內容 – 美國情況 • 1) 一般人以當時的社區標準，認為有關作品內容，整體而言會挑起淫慾的念頭; • 2)有關作品以明顯冒犯方式表現或描述某些性活動（不同的州有不同性活動種類的規定） • 3 )整體而言，有關作品不具嚴肅的文學，政治，藝術，或科學價值

6. 應否規管或禁止色情內容,理由是什麼? Shouldpornography be regulated or even banned? 有害 harmful? 維護公眾道德 Public morals? 保護未成年人與言論自由之間要取得平衡 Balance has to be struck between protection of minors and protection of free speech 社會有權決定成員的起碼道德標準？ 還是 個別成員有言論自由？ Society’s purported right to dictate moral standards for everyone versus personal liberty Also harmful to women? 色情內容

7. 網上色情內容Online pornography • 議題一：色情內容應否規管或甚至禁制？（已提及） • 議題二：網上色情內容帶來更多、更大的問題？ • Content: deviant （內容更不為一般人接受) • Access: easy (較易接觸) • Popular (更普及) • Interaction: more active (更互動)

8. 網上色情內容Online pornography • 議題三:更難阻截？ • Broken into packets for transmission • can be encrypted • sender and receiver can remain anonymous • can be sent in e-mails

9. 美國國會多次嘗試 立法規管網上色情內容 CDA of 1996 （針對色情內容) CIPA of 2000 (是否安裝過濾軟件 use of filters) CPPA of 1996 (針對網上兒童色情內容 virtual childporn) COPA of 1998 (or called CDA II) (針對色情內容) 網上色情內容　－　美國對策

10. 規管網上色情內容: CDA • 美國國會通過 • Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 • 中國內地有多個譯名 • 多個團體不滿 • 指當中有兩項條文違憲， • 不符合第一修正案保護言論的精神 • 成為美國最高法院審理的 • 首宗互聯網案件 • 裁決 • 兩項條文違憲

11. 美國國會通過Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 第一次嘗試規管網上色情內容 當中有兩條條文惹爭議 條文目的： 禁絕網上未達到淫褻non-obscene的色情內容 s223(a): “indecent transmission” provision （禁止傳送不雅內容） s223 (d): “patently offensive display” provision （禁止展示明顯冒犯的內容 一旦被起訴，網站可用以下理由辯護: 已採取措施，限制未成年人接觸; 要求網民提供年齡證明 規管網上色情內容: CDA

12. 規管網上色情內容: DCA Online • 裁決理由： • a)涵蓋範圍太廣，很多非牟利組織也受影響 • scope too wide,covering non-profit making organisations; • 條文的關鍵詞太含糊，欠清晰定義，令好些不是色情，並含教育成份的內容也受影響 • b) key words, such as indecent, patently offensive, not defined covering non-porn materials of educational values • e.g. AIDS prevention, breast cancer, counselling concerning abortion

13. 規管網上色情內容: DCA • 裁決建基於以下論據： • 應否規管互聯網？最高法院的意見 • 1) 網上的傳播自由，受很大的保護，較近似報刊般，不應如廣電般規管 • the Internet • unlimited capacity • not as intrusive as broadcast media • not regulated by government • so should enjoy fuller protection of First Amendment • should not regulated as broadcast media • more like newspapers and magazines • 2)就算要保護兒童，採用的手段要對自由干預最少，例如使用過濾軟件防止兒童瀏覽，比立法限制自由為佳 • There are less intrusive means of protecting children from adult material on the Internet, e.g. filters

14. 國會通過　Child Online Protection Act (COPA) of 1998 再接再厲，規管網上色情內容 以下行為，構成犯罪 商業網站容許未成年人接觸有害內容，例如露骨的性內容 If commercial web sites give minor access to harmful materials such as sexually explicit communication 以當時的社區標準，判斷是否有害? Harmful or not? - Judged by contemporary community standards 規管網上色情內容: COPA

15. 1998: 國會通過COPA 交回下級法院 2002: 最高法院第一次審視 2004: 最高法院再次審視 交回下級法院 2009:最高法院拒絶審視 COPA: 壽終正寢 爭議不斷，無法實施 規管網上色情內容: COPA

16. Online pornography: COPA (continued) • 國會通過COPA • 但多個團體反對，入稟法院指法律違憲 • 法院頒令禁止實施 • restraining order granted • 理由 • 未能証明有關立法是一種對自由限制最少的手段 • 並認為使用過濾軟件防止兒童瀏覽有害內容會更有效 • cannot prove the provision is the least restrictive method • blocking or filtering may be as effective

17. 規管網上色情內容: COPA • 法官說： • 以保護兒童之名，限制言論自由 • 最終削弱兒童成長後可享有的自由 • ‘…we do the minors of this country harm if First Amendment protections... chipped away in the name of their protection.’

18. 規管網上色情內容: COPA • 上訴法院:維持禁制令 • 理由 • 使用“現今的社區標準”會太闊 • too wide to apply contemporary community standards … • 最高法院第一次的上訴判決 （2002） • 用現今的社區標準去衡量什麼內容是對兒童有害，這是可以接受 • OK to use of contemporary community standards • But keep the ban and let lower courts to decide other aspects

19. 規管網上色情內容: COPA • 最高法院第二次的上訴判決 （2004） • 再次交由下級法院決定 • 但強調 • 使用過濾軟件去避免兒童接觸有害內容 • 會對自由産生較小的限制 • emphasized that the use of filters • may be a less restrictive means to keep harmful materials from minors

20. 規管網上色情內容: COPA • 2008年中 : • 上訴法庭判 COPA違憲 • 理由 • 有關的法律條文太闊和含糊，不可接受 • 互聯網服務商亦被迫要使用最嚴苛的社區標準 • the law is "impermissibly overbroad and vague." and made every web communication provider abide by the most restrictive community's standards." • 2009年初：最高法院 • 拒絕了政府的上訴申請，這意味COPA違憲，沒法實施

21. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996 (CPPA) • 這是國會通過的另一條法律，目的 • 將虛擬兒童色情內容，納入規管範圍 • regulate virtual child pornography • 立法理由: • to prevent sexual exploitations of children • The courts usually allow such regulation as an exception to the First Amendment • 但什麼是 • 虛擬兒童色情內容?

22. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • CPPA提及的child pornography定義: • 用電腦製成的影像或圖片 • “any…computer or computer-generated image or picture” • 看似是兒童參與性行為,或 • that “appears to be .. of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct ...or • 給人一個印象，是用圖像描繪兒童參與性行為 • that conveys the impression that the material is or contains a visual depiction of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct”

23. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • 美國最高法院裁定 • 這法律違反第一修正案 • 條文涵蓋範圍太廣 • 會禁制很多不屬淫褻或兒童色情內容 • 亦沒有考慮有關內容的藝術等價值 • 虛擬兒童色情內容 • 與虐待兒童的行為沒有關連

24. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • 最高法院還指出 • 區分言論和行為，至為關鍵 • 政府未能證明 • 有關言論與虐待兒童有任何關連 • First Amendment freedoms are most in danger when the governmentseeks to control thought… • The right to think is the beginning of freedom • speech must be protected from the government because speech is the beginning of thought

25. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • To preserve these freedoms, and to protect speech for its own sake • the Court's First Amendment casesdraw vital distinctions between words and deeds • The Government has shownno more than a remote connection • between speech that might encourage thoughts or impulse and any resulting child abuse

26. 規管網上色情內容: CPPA • The US Congress failed to introduce a similar legislation to curb virtual child pornography • Child Obscenity and Pornography Prevention Act (2002/2003) • But was enable to the Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to End the Exploitation of Children Today Act of 2003 (PROTECT Act 2003) • passed 98-0 in the Senate and 400-25 in the House • Signed into law by the US president on April 30, 2003

27. child pornography: 經修訂的定義 • 什麼是兒童色情內容？ • （是影像，即不是文字） • child pornography means • any visual depiction, including any photograph, film, video, picture, or computer or computer-generated image or picture, whether made or produced by electronic, mechanical, or other means, of sexually explicit conduct, where—

28. child pornography: 經修訂的定義 • (A) the production of such visual depiction involves the use of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct; （確是有兒童參與製作） • (B) such visual depiction is a digital image, computer image, or computer-generated image that is, or isindistinguishable from, that of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct;（根本沒法區分是否真人）or • (C) such visual depiction has been created, adapted, or modified to appear that an identifiable minor is engaging in sexually explicit conduct. （能夠認出有關的兒童） • US Code Title 18 Part I, chapter 110 § 2256

29. Porn on the Web: Boy lured into selling sex

30. 網上色情內容: 行業自律 self-regulation? • 行業自律 self-regulation? • By content rating, plus blocking or filtering software (內容分級，再加阻攔或過濾軟件） • attitudes of • industry • government • Congress

31. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • 2000:The Congress • passed Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) • because people visiting libraries, including minors • regularly search the Internet for pornography • expose others to porn images by leaving them displayed on Internet terminals or printed at library printers

32. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • The CIPA requires public libraries and schools to install software • to block images that constitute obscenity or child porn; and • to prevent minors from obtaining access to material that is harmful to them • 公眾圖書館和學校要加裝軟件 • 攔截屬淫褻或兒童色情的內容 • 並避免兒童接觸到對他們有害的內容 • Otherwise, they may not receive federal assistance to provide Internet access • 否則，它們的互聯網設備和服務將不會得到聯邦資助

33. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • Challenged by civic groups • arguing this would createdigital divide • not able to reachvaluable speechese.g. sex education... • 條文受到公民團體的反對，理由：…

34. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • Court rulings (下級法院裁定條文違憲） • May 2002: aUS district courtruled CIPAhas violated the First Amendment: • a) Filtering software constitutesa content-based restrictionon access toa public forum(this restriction is subject to strict scrutiny) • B) Though government has a compellinginterest in preventing the dissemination of obscenity, child porn, or materials harmful to minors, theuse of software filters is not narrowly tailoredto further that interest

35. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • 但最高法院裁定有關法律並未違憲 • June 2003:US Supreme Courtupheld CIPAruling that • the Act does not induce libraries to violate the Constitution; and • public libraries’ use of Internet filtering software does not violate their patron’s First Amendment rights

36. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • Reasons: • 公共圖書館享有很大的自由度，去決定買什麼書，並傳統上不提供色情讀物 • Public libraries must havebroad discretionto decide what material to provide to their patrons • Their goal has never been to provide ‘universal coverage’, but seek to provide materials of greatest direct benefit or interest to the community • Traditionally exclude pornfrom their collection

37. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • Internet access in public libraries isneither a ‘traditional’ nor a designatedpublic forum • Internet terminals are not acquired by a library to create a public forum to web publishers to express themselves • But to facilitate research, learning and recreational pursuits by providing information of appropriate quality

38. 規管網上色情內容: CIPA • 網上內容海量 • 圖書館沒法逐一查核才收置 • 較可行的做法 • 用軟件阻隔某些種類的內容 • 成年人如懷疑一些內容被不必要地阻隔 • 可要求職員解開軟件 • Because of the vast quantity of material on the Internet • Libraries cannot possibly check item by item so to decide what to include in their collection • But toexcludecertain categories of content • Thedanger of overblockcan be easilyovercome • because an adult patron may ask a librarian to unblock it or disable the filter

39. 美國國多次立法，都被指違憲，要由最高法院裁決美國國多次立法，都被指違憲，要由最高法院裁決 CDA of 1996 (online porn) (X) CIPA OF 2000 (filters in schools and libraries) () CPPA of 1996 (virtual child porn) (X) COPA of 1998 (or called CDA II) (online porn) (X) 規管網上色情內容:小結

41. Further proposals: 2005-2010

42. Online pornography - .xxx domain name • It is estimated that adult content accounts for • more than 10% of all online traffic and • 25% of all global net searches • The Icann decided in mid-2005 to assign .xxx domain name for sexual explicit sites • to make it easier to filter and avoid these sites • But the US and some other countries express concern over the new measure

43. Online pornography - .xxx domain name • The Icann would will allow time for additional governmental and public policy concerns to be expressed before reaching a final decision • Icann (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) • From BBC News, 16 August 2005

44. 規管網上色情內容:歐洲國家 • Western European countries:different approach • more on protection of minors than on protection of free speech • the German case of CompuServe

45. The Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (Nov. 2001) • 製定全球首個打擊網上罪行的條約 • First international treaty on cybercrime • Initiated by Council of Europe (43 members) • Signedalso by the US, Canada, Japan • Came force on July 1, 2004 • Purposes: effective fight against cybercrime requires increased, rapid and well-functioninginternational co-operationin criminal matters

46. The Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime (continued) • Article 9:party states have to prohibit online child pornography • ….banning producing, offering, procuring and possessing on computer • ….child pornography: • …minor • …appear to be a minor • …realistic images representing a minor

48. EU plans safer net for children • A study found that children were still arranging face-to-face meetings with people they talk to online despite warnings about the dangers of internet chatrooms. • And the study showed that 60% of children did not know that people they chat to online might not be who they say they are. • To counter the problem, the commission urged EU states to join forces and raise awareness about harmful content online.

49. EU plans safer net for children • The Safer Internet plus programme would launch 2005 and run until 2008. • It proposed to fund development of effective net filters and promote their use among parents to prevent pornographic material reaching children. • The commission also suggested the EU pay for telephone hotlines so that people could report suspect sites targeted at children.

50. http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/sip/index_en.htmhttp://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/sip/index_en.htm