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Journalism 614: The History of Public Opinion

Journalism 614: The History of Public Opinion. The History of Public Opinion. Must understand history to understand the current ideas about public opinion and possible directions for future inquiry Three kinds of history Intellectual, theoretical debates over what constitutes public opinion

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Journalism 614: The History of Public Opinion

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  1. Journalism 614:The History of Public Opinion

  2. The History of Public Opinion • Must understand history to understand the current ideas about public opinion and possible directions for future inquiry • Three kinds of history • Intellectual, theoretical debates over what constitutes public opinion • Sociocultural tracing of how opinions have been expressed and assessed • Communication developments linking opinion of key events and occurrences

  3. 1. Philosophical Debates • Pre-enlightenment philosophy: • Then, educate public so opinion is in line with the spirit of a fixed, sovereign law • Contemporary approach: • Now, modify the law so that it is in line with the spirit of sovereign general will

  4. Plato & Aristotle - 4th Century BC • Plato distrusted the masses • Unsure if citizens can understand their own interests and strive toward a sound state • Argued for educated philosopher kings • Aristotle believed in “power of community” • Defended the wisdom of the citizen • Institutions should take “climate of opinion,” values, norms, and taste — into account

  5. Machiavelli (1469-1527) - 16th Century • Focused on the strategic use of power by political leaders; how to outmaneuver • Recognized that public opinion has political force that leaders must contend with • Even in the most peaceful society, there are conflicting values between rulers and ruled

  6. Contract Theorists - 17th Century • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • Public is crucial to the formation of the state • Structure of the state created by a “contract” between the public and its leadership • Little need to for ongoing participation • John Locke (1632-1704) • Argued for genuine and regular participation in civic and political life by citizens • Public opinion is an expression of democratic rights

  7. French Enlightenment- 18th Century • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) • Need to place power in the hands of the public • Recognize the need to respect the community • The state is based on the general will • What citizens believe is the best course of action for the community, for the welfare of the populace • Citizen think about their interests and needs but also reason about the general good of society

  8. The Utilitarians - 19th Century • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) • Public opinion as a sanction • A force that keeps society at equilibrium • Discourages non-normative behaviors • Say within an acceptable latitude • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) • Emphasized the importance of majority opinion • Greatest good for the greatest number

  9. Political Theorists - 19th Century • Tocqueville (1805-1859) • Public opinion as a force of social control • Hints at the “spiral of silence” • Recognized the relationship between political equality and importance of public opinion • In systems of inequality, mass opinion is unimportant; focus on political stakeholders • In systems of equality, individuals view themselves as capable and mass opinion is important

  10. Political Theorists - 19th Century • Marx (1818-1883) • The corruption of democracy by capitalism • Freedom as consumer choice not individual rights • Common citizens tend to mimic the opinions of the ruling class - people with wealth and power • Media and elite opinion leads public opinion • Often hold opinions in contrast with self-interest • Hegemony - control of mass consciousness

  11. 20th Century Theorists • James Bryce (1838-1922) • British parliamentarian and Oxford professor • Traced the role of news organs in the communication of public opinion • Argued mass media hold a place among other major social institutions - courts, legislature • News media direct and reflect public opinion • Central role for media in political process • Recognized the importance of conversation

  12. 20th Century Theorists • Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) • French sociologist and social psychologist • Theorized that the press shapes conversation, which in turn shapes opinion and action Media —> Conversation —> Opinion —>Action • Lippmann and Dewey pick up this debate

  13. 2. Sociocultural History • Trends in expression and measurement • An increasing emphasis on order and routinization • Movement toward private and anonymous expression • Shift from local to national to international

  14. Pre-19th Century Techniques • Less systematic, more public, and local • Opinion is communicated through rhetoric • The art of public speaking and persuasion - 5th C. BC • Oratory, the expression of ideas and values • Rhetoric conveyed in unmediated, public forums • Opinion is communicated in printed word • Printing press enables formation of publics - 16th C. • Large number of dispersed people can communicate • People can ally with causes, ideas, and institutions • Permitted political mobilization of groups

  15. Coffeehouses and Salons - 17th C. • Locations of political discussion • Spend hours discussing the news of the day • Coffeehouse: a public space • Lawyers, journalists, tradesmen, workers • Diversity of perspectives encourage debate • Democratic view of public opinion • Salons: exclusive and bourgeois • Intellectuals, statesmen, artists • Visited by Kings to gauge public sentiment • Elitist view of public opinion

  16. Petitions and Rallies - 17th/18th C. • Signed declaration of public sentiment • Focus political attention on certain issues • Often angrily presented to leadership • Slow shift toward social and institutional control • Public demonstration of opinion • Rallies, rioting and other public demonstrations • Strikes, marches, public speeches • Riots and other “popular disturbances”

  17. Elections and Polling - 19th/20th C. • Elections • Secret ballot contrasts with the traditionally public and attributed nature of mass opinion • Straw polling • Nonscientific, non-representative polls • Still done today with “call in” and “e-polls” • Literary Digest Fiasco, 1936

  18. Representative Surveys - 20th C. • George Gallup and Ralph Nafziger • Pioneers in public opinion survey methods • Sampling theory, random sample, response rate • The dominant means of assessing mass opinion • Sum of individual opinions • Misses the notion of opinion elites • Misses the questions of “power” & “influence”

  19. 3. Communication and Opinion • Modern public relations developed in U.S. • Result of political and markets freedoms • Need to manage public opinion to thrive • Old concept - dating back to notion of propaganda devised by Catholic Church • Tool to propagate the religion • Has become a vital way for business leaders to deal with economic factors, competitive environment, and policy pressures.

  20. History of Public Relations in US • Hyping the Colonies • Many settlers came to US in response to exaggerated publicity claims to “secure money and men” • Use poems, sermons, broadsides, and pamphlets • Fostering a Revolution • Tools of political public relations used to support American revolt - 1763 - 1776 • Use of symbols, slogans, staged events, news framing • Same tools critical to ratification of Constitution

  21. Press Agents & the 19th Century • Press agents, promotion, and ads support railroad efforts to sell land and lure settlers to the West • Taken to a new level by P.T. Barnum Circus • By end of the 19th Century, advertising is pervasive in all aspects of commerce • An outgrowth of industrialization • J. Walter Thompson founded in 1864 • Focus on name recognition and liking • First PR firm in 1900 - Publicity Bureau

  22. Ads and PR in Early 20th Cent. • Beginning with WWI, Wilson uses “information ministry to build public support • Shift from defensive - reputation protection - to offensive to build patriotic fervor • Rise of experts in advertising, marketing, public relations, and fundraising for post-war boom • Bernays pens “Crystallizing Public Opinion” • Defines PR as “two-way street” • Must interpret the public for the institution and present the institution to the public

  23. The Modern Age • WWII and the action agencies • Need publicity to win cooperation and acceptance • 100,000 people served in information posts (PR) • Birth of the scientific public opinion poll • Roper, Gallup, Nafziger develop systems: 1932 -1945 • Key tool for public relations specialists • Rise of TV, mass marketing and globalization • Information overload with marketing messages • Mergers of PR and advertising agencies for integration • The growth of Internet and social media

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