Mass Society and Democracy

1. Mass Society and Democracy 20

2. The Second Industrial Revolution 20.1

3. The Second Industrial Revolution In Western Europe, the introduction of electricity, chemicals, and petroleum triggered the Second Industrial Revolution, and a world economy began to develop.

4. The Second Industrial Revolution In the Second Industrial Revolution there was greater use of steel, chemicals, petroleum, and electricity. Electricity was a new form of energy that gave way to many new inventions. In the United States Thomas Edison created the light bulb, and homes, businesses, and factories used the affordable resource for convenience and productivity.

5. The Second Industrial Revolution Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone, and radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi sparked a revolution in communications. The internal-combustion engine revolutionized transportation with the automobile, while the airplane made its appearance as well.

6. The Second Industrial Revolution Prices for produced goods decreased as a result of lower production and transportation costs. The assembly line allowed for more efficient mass production of goods. In Europe, nations in the north and west had a higher standard of living for their citizens, while the southeastern regions of Europe remained largely agricultural and rural, with lower standards of living.

7. The Second Industrial Revolution By 1900, a true world economy was occurring. Europe dominated this global economy by the beginning of the twentieth century.

8. The Working Class Industrialization gave some a higher standard of living, but struggling workers turned to trade unions or socialism to improve their lives.

9. The Working Class The transition to an industrialized society was hard on the workers, who often worked dangerous jobs for poor wages and lived in crowded slums. Some reformers of the capitalist society wanted a better environment for the working class. More radical reformers wanted to abolish capitalism in favor of socialism. Many socialist ideas were based on the theory of the German Karl Marx.

10. The Working Class The Communist Manifesto outlined Marx�s beliefs that industrial capitalism was to blame for the problems besetting society. Marx believed that the proletariat would violently overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a classless society, run by a dictatorship form of government.

11. The Working Class In many European nations, working-class leaders formed socialist parties based on Marx�s ideas, but were divided on their goals. Pure Marxists wanted revolution to defeat capitalism, while revisionists argued that political gains were the key to change. To improve their conditions, workers organized into unions for better working conditions and used strikes as their bargaining tool.

12. The New Urban Environment 20.2

13. The New Urban Environment As workers migrated to cities, local governments had to solve urgent public health problems; and their solutions allowed cities to grow even more.

14. The New Urban Environment As more people moved to cities in search of economic opportunities, European society became more urban. Reformers were able to urge local governments to improve conditions in cities. Improved housing, water, and sewage systems led to a safer living environment.

15. The New Urban Environment Improved living conditions enabled people to live in close quarters, and cities such as London and Frankfurt were able to accommodate large populations.

16. Social Structure European society comprised three broad social classes�upper, middle, and lower.

17. Social Structure The Elite Class: - Made up of wealthy bankers, industrialists, and merchants, this minority became leaders in the government and military.

18. Social Structure The Middle Class: The middle class consisted of a variety of groups. A lower-middle class consisted of small shopkeepers, traders, and prosperous farmers. White-collar workers, including traveling salespeople, bookkeepers, and secretaries, were between the lower-middle class and the lower class. Although incomes varied, the goals, values, and lifestyle opportunities were similar among middle-class Europeans.

19. Social Structure The Working Class: The majority of Europeans were considered the working class of society and included landholding peasants, laborers, and domestic servants. Improved working environments facilitated more buying power and better social conditions.

20. Women�s Experiences Attitudes toward women changed as they moved into white-collar jobs, received more education, and began campaigning for the right to vote.

21. Women�s Experiences During the Second Industrial Revolution, women began to enter the labor force because of a lack of male workers. These positions were generally filled by lower-class women. In the 1800s, marriage was the only career available to most women, although advances in economic conditions led to a decline in birthrates. For women in middle-class families, activities centered on the family became common by 1850.

22. Women�s Experiences Besides raising their families, lower-class women worked to earn additional money. Modern feminism began during the Enlightenment, and, during the nineteenth century, women argued for the rights to divorce and to own property. In the medical field, women such as Amalie Sieveking, Florence Nightingale, and Clara Barton transformed nursing into a professional occupation.

23. Women�s Experiences In the 1840s and 1850s, women began to demand political rights and believed that suffrage was key to improving their overall position. In 1903 Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women�s Social and Political Union in Britain and used unusual publicity stunts to draw attention to her cause.

24. Education and Leisure As a result of industrialization, the levels of education rose. People�s lives became more clearly divided into periods of work and leisure.

25. Education and Leisure Between 1870 and 1914, Western nations began to finance a system of primary education for children ages 6 to 12. Education was considered important for a viable labor force and better-educated voters. The immediate result of public education was a jump in literacy.

26. Education and Leisure Higher literacy rates led to the development of mass media. Newspapers were both informative and entertaining, and a literate populace purchased millions of copies per day. New types of leisure were available to Europeans and Americans. People went to amusement parks, and dance halls, and organized team sports.

27. Education and Leisure Leisure time was now clearly defined as separate from work. Leisure time was also more passive in nature, and people paid to attend leisure activities.

28. Western Europe and Political Democracy 20.3

29. Western Europe and Political Democracy Growing prosperity after 1850 contributed to the expansion of democracy in Western Europe.

30. Western Europe and Political Democracy In the late 1800s, political democracy was spreading in Western Europe, as universal male suffrage laws were passed, political parties formed, and ministerial responsibility became the dominant political entity.

31. Western Europe and Political Democracy Great Britain: A two-party parliamentary system emerged as the Liberal and Conservative parties vied for political power. The Liberals voted for social reforms, such as unemployment benefits and pensions.

32. Western Europe and Political Democracy France: In 1875 the Third Republic in France gained a republican constitution. The new government was established with a president and a legislature made up of two houses.

33. Western Europe and Political Democracy Italy: - Italy had emerged by 1870 as a united national state, but the disparity of wealth and widespread government corruption led to a weak, centralized political system.

34. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order Although Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later Russia instituted elections and parliaments, real power remained in the hands of emperors and elites.

35. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order In Germany, the government established by Otto von Bismarck set up a two-house legislature. Although the Reichstag was elected by male voters, the emperor still maintained political power by controlling the military and foreign policy.

36. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order By the reign of William II (1888 to 1918), Germany was the strongest military and industrial power in Europe. Conservative forces thwarted the rise of democracy in Germany. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the emperor Francis Joseph largely ignored the Austrian parliament and governed by imperial decree. Ethnic problems threatened the stability of Austria.

37. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order In Hungary, the parliamentary system worked, although it was dominated by the nation�s landholding class. Nicholas II became the czar of Russia in 1894, and was committed to autocratic rule of the large nation.

38. Central and Eastern Europe: The Old Order Russia was becoming an industrialized nation, and the rising working class demanded more political power. In 1905 the bloody breakup of a peaceful demonstration in St. Petersburg left hundreds dead. Czar Nicholas relented and permitted the establishment of the Duma, although he had limited the power of the legislative body by 1907.

39. The United States In the United States, the Second Industrial Revolution produced wealth that was more concentrated than it was in Europe.

40. The United States In the United States, the Civil War had destroyed the Southern way of life, and new amendments to the U.S. Constitution protected the civil liberties of African Americans. Between 1860 and 1914, the United States switched from a farm-based economy to an industrial economy.

41. The United States The populations of urban centers soared, and by 1900, three American cities had over 1 million inhabitants. Around the turn of the century, America became imperialistic and acquired territories abroad. American forces deposed Queen Liliuokalani in Hawaii and acquired territories from the vanquished Spanish in the Spanish-American War.

42. International Rivalries The German emperor pursued aggressive foreign policies that divided Europe into two hostile alliance systems.

43. International Rivalries To prevent France from limiting its power, Germany entered into a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy by 1882. This coalition was known as the Triple Alliance. In 1890 Emperor William II fired Bismarck and took control of Germany�s foreign policy. In 1894 William II ended the treaty Germany had with Russia. By 1907, France, Great Britain, and Russia had drawn into an alliance known as the Triple Entente.

44. International Rivalries The two opposing alliances of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente had become more divided and less willing to compromise at the beginning of the twentieth century. As the Ottoman Empire began to lose power, the provinces of Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro in the Balkans began to gain their freedom. Austria and Russia vied for influence in the region.

45. International Rivalries In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Slavic territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This outraged Serbia, which wanted to establish a Slavic kingdom. Serbia and its ally Russia prepared for war against Austria-Hungary. Germany demanded that Russia accept the Austrian annexation or face war; Russia, weakened by war with Japan, backed down. By the beginning of 1914, the crisis in the Balkans threatened the security of Europe.

46. The Culture of Modernity 20.4

47. The Culture of Modernity Dramatic innovation occurred in literature, the visual arts, and music in the late 1800s.

48. The Culture of Modernity Between 1870 and 1914, many writers and artists produced works known as modernism. The naturalist writers addressed social problems such as alcoholism, women in society, and urban slums. Symbolist writers produced work that functioned for its own sake, and did not attempt to criticize or understand society.

49. The Culture of Modernity In France, artists such as Claude Monet embraced a painting style known as impressionism. Impressionists rejected indoor studios and went into nature, where they captured the interplay of light, sky, and water. Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cezanne used color and structure to express mood in a form known as postimpressionism. These artists wanted to represent reality, not mirror it, as did the camera, which had been invented in 1888.

50. The Culture of Modernity The Spaniard Pablo Picasso painted in a new style, using geometric designs to re-create reality. This modern style of art is called cubism. Modernism influenced architecture as well, and skilled builders Louis H. Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright created buildings that were clean-lined and functional.

51. The Culture of Modernity In music, the �modern� sounds of Stravinsky�s The Rite of Spring caused a near-riot by Parisians, who were upset by the new sounds and rhythms of the performance.

52. Uncertainty Grows Scientific discoveries in this period had a profound impact on how people saw themselves and their world.

53. Uncertainty Grows At the end of the nineteenth century, Marie Curie challenged the accepted view that the universe existed independent of its observers, with her discovery that the element radium gave off energy. The German-born scientist Albert Einstein provided a new view of the universe with his theory of relativity, which stated that space and time are not absolute, but are relative to the observer.

54. Uncertainty Grows A doctor from Vienna named Sigmund Freud asserted that human behavior was strongly determined by past experiences and internal urges. Freud used a method known as psychoanalysis, in which he and a patient probed deeply into the patient�s memory for healing purposes.

55. Extreme Nationalism In the late 1800s, extreme nationalism was reflected in the movements of Social Darwinism and anti-Semitism.

56. Extreme Nationalism In the 1800s, many Europeans became fiercely nationalistic. They used Social Darwinism to justify the strength and wealth of nations. In Europe, anti-Semitism had been around for centuries, but became more intense during the late 1800s. So as to win voters, political groups blamed Jews for many problems.

57. Extreme Nationalism The worst treatment of Jews occurred in Russia, where persecutions and pogroms were widespread. A Jewish nationalist movement called Zionism helped many Jews to emigrate from Europe to the United States and Palestine.