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Chapter 8: Qualitative Methods

Chapter 8: Qualitative Methods. Content. Qualitative versus quantitative methods Merits of qualitative methods The qualitative research process The range of methods – data gathering In-depth interviews Focus groups Participant observation Analysing texts Biographical methods

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Chapter 8: Qualitative Methods

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  1. Chapter 8: Qualitative Methods

  2. Content • Qualitative versus quantitative methods • Merits of qualitative methods • The qualitative research process • The range of methods – data gathering • In-depth interviews • Focus groups • Participant observation • Analysing texts • Biographical methods • Ethnography • Data Analysis • Manual methods • Using computer software – Nvivo.

  3. A. Qualitative vs Quantitative • In the past, in social science and leisure and tourism studies, quantitative methods were dominant. • This is no longer the case, from the mid-1990s • In leisure studies qualitative methods have become dominant. • In tourism studies qualitative methods are widely accepted. • It is no longer necessary to ‘defend’ the use of qualitative methods in leisure and tourism studies.

  4. B. Merits of qualitative methods (after Kelly) • Correspond to the qualitative nature of leisure/ tourism experiences. • Brings people into leisure and tourism research. • Results understandable to people who are not statistically trained. • Able to encompass personal change over time. • Suited to investigating face-to-face interaction between people (symbols, gestures, etc.). • Suited to providing an understanding of people's needs and aspirations.

  5. Use of qualitative methods in market research (after Peterson) • Developing hypotheses on behaviour and attitudes • Identifying the full range of issues/views/attitudes to be pursued in larger-scale research • Suggesting methods for quantitative enquiry • Identifying appropriate language to use in surveys • Understanding a buying decision-making process • Developing new product/service/marketing strategy ideas – free play of attitudes/opinions a rich source of ideas for the marketer • Providing initial screening of new product/service/ strategy ideas • Learning how communications are received by potential customers – particularly related to advertising.

  6. C. The qualitative research process • Recursive rather than sequential – see Fig. 8.1 • Tends to be inductive rather than deductive • Related to the idea of ‘grounded theory’.

  7. Fig. 8.1 The qualitative research process

  8. D. The range of methods1. In-depth interviews • Characterised by: • Length – 30 mins to several hours • Depth – more in-depth than a typical questionnaire-based interview • Structure – fluid, informal structure • Used when: • Number of subjects/interviewees relatively small • Information is expected to vary considerably, and in complex ways from subject to subject • A topic is to be explored as a preliminary stage in planning a larger, possibly quantitative study.

  9. In-depth interview checklist • Often a checklist of topics, rather than formal list of questions, is used – for example see Appendix 8.1

  10. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3)

  11. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3) (contd.)

  12. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3) (contd.)

  13. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3) (contd.)

  14. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3) (contd.)

  15. Interviewing interventions (after Whyte) (Fig. 8.3) (contd.)

  16. Recording in-depth interviews • Tape-recording preferable. • Notes (taken during or immediately after interview) also used. • Transcribing tape-recorded interview, word-for-word, produces a verbatim transcript. • Transcribing is a time-consuming process. • Analysis of notes and transcripts – see analysis section.

  17. 2. Focus groups • Similar to in-depth interviews but conducted with a group (typically 8 – 12 members). • ‘Facilitator’ (rather than interviewer) guides discussion. • Interaction between subjects takes place as well as between interviewer/facilitator and subject. • Used when: • .. a group is small in number so would not be adequately represented in a general community survey – eg. some minority ethnic groups or people with disabilities • … the interaction/discussion process itself is of interest – eg. testing reactions to a proposed new product • … it may not be practical to arrange for individual in-depth interviews but people are willing to be interviewed as a group.

  18. 3. Participant observation • The researcher becomes a participant in the social process being studied. • Examples • Studying a whole community by living there – Whyte Street Corner Society. • Studying pub culture as a ‘regular’– Michael Smith (UK). • Studying a leisure facility or tourist resort as a user/visitor. • Studying a drug subculture by joining a drug-using group (NB. related ethical issues).

  19. Participant observation – issues • Gaining admission to/acceptance by a group • What role to play: • Full identification as researcher? • Partial identification? • No identification or fake identity? • NB Related ethical issues. • Identification of informants/confidants – related to the idea of sampling. • Practicalities of recording of information.

  20. 4. Analysing texts • Research tradition derived from the humanities • ‘Text’ includes: • Books, newspapers, magazines - Pictures • Posters - Recorded music • Film - Television. • In The Tourist Gaze Urry says: • Tourism research should involve … not only written texts but also maps, landscapes, paintings, films, townscapes, TV programmes, brochures, and so on. (Urry, 1994: 238).

  21. 5. Biographical methods • Biography/autobiography of key individuals • Oral history – eye witness accounts of past events • Memory work – focus group type process involving people writing about and discussing experiences • Personal domain histories – analysis of life experience in one ‘domain’, eg. ‘personal leisure history’.

  22. 6. Ethnography • From the Greek ethnos, people. • Not one technique but an approach drawing on a variety of, generally qualitative, techniques. • In cultural studies, associated with the study of sub-cultures – eg. youth sub-cultures, ethnic sub-cultures.

  23. E. Data analysis • Data storage and confidentiality • Circular model • Case-study example • Manual analysis methods • Computer-based analysis methods.

  24. 1. Storage of Data • Security and confidentiality of transcripts/tapes, particularly if sensitive material is involved • raises ethical issues – see Chapter 3. • Research material should ideally not be labelled with real names of organisations or individuals • Fictitious names should be created • with an index of real names kept separately.

  25. 2. Circular model in quantitative research (Fig. 8.4) Deductive/ Quantitative C.Analysis B.Observation/ Description A.START Explanation/Hypotheses/ Data Theory /Research collection Questions The literature and informal observation

  26. 2. Circular model in qualitative research (Fig. 8.4) (contd.) Possibly Further On-going Data reference to litertaure collection Inductive/ Qualitative D. Refinement of Hypotheses/ Researchquestions E. Continuing Observation/ Description C.Analysis F. Final Analysis B.Observation/ Description A.START Tentative /Hypotheses/ Research questions Data collection The literature and informal observation

  27. 3. Case-study example – conceptual framework (Fig. 8.5) • Research project used to demonstrate data analysis – leisure/tourism choice model – in-depth interview transcripts used for illustration.

  28. Case-study example – interview transcripts (Fig. 8.6)

  29. 4. Manual Analysis • Importance of reading/re-reading transcripts. • Identification of emergent themes(similar to variables or relationships between variables in quantitative research). • Themes may • arise from conceptual framework/ research questions – therefore searched for deductively, or • emerge unprompted, inductively. • Themes ‘flagged’ by researcher – as in column 1 of Fig. 8.6 • Can result in a more developed conceptual frame-work – see Fig. 8.7

  30. Parents Background/ Background Teachers experience/ experience Peers influences influences Activitychoice Present Present Time constraints/ Sporting Money constraints/ Fitness opportunities opportunities Social Personal Competitive Personal Social/Non-social factors factors Anti-routine/Habitual Cultural Instrumental Active Coaching etc. Events Weight-gain Relationships Money Developed conceptual framework (Fig. 8.7)

  31. Mechanics of manual analysis • Flagging of transcripts (as in Fig. 8.6) • In margins • Use of colour coding • ‘Post-it’ notes • Cards • Cataloguing, eg. • Constraint - time: Mark: p. 2, para. 3, • Anna: p. 7 para. 4 • Constraint - money: Mark; p. 2, para. 3 • Searching/flagging/cataloguing can be aided using Word-processor ‘search’ facility.

  32. Analysis • Numbers not important • Emphasis on differences rather than similarities • Some analysis parallel to quantitative analysis – eg. Crosstabulation – see Fig. 8.8.

  33. Analysis – qualitative crosstabulation (Fig. 8.8)

  34. 5. Computer-aided qualitative analysis • Use of computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) • Used here: NVivo • package from QSR (Qualitative Solutions and Research Pty Ltd) • includes N6 (updated version of the well-known NUD*IST),and XSight for market researchers • see www.qsrinternational.com

  35. NVivo procedures covered • Starting up • Creating a Project • Creating Documents • Document attributes • Setting up a coding system • Coding text • Analysis.

  36. a. Starting up • Click on NVivo icon to obtain NVivo Launch Pad (Fig. 8.9)

  37. a. Starting up (contd.) NVivo Launch Pad (Fig. 8.9)

  38. Note to Lecturer • The best approach from here on is to ‘go live’ with NVivo with the example data pre-loaded onto your computerand follow the procedures in the book. • If this is not possible and you wish to proceed to provide an overview using PowerPoint, the Figures from the book are included in the following slides.

  39. Figure 8.10. NVivo Create Project • Click on Create a New Project to reveal the New Project Wizard: this offers the user a Typical or Custom set up – we will deal only with the Typical set up here. [Next] • A dialog box is presented requesting a Name and Description. Type in 'Leisure Choice' as the Name and 'Leisure Choice Project' as the Description. [Next] • NVivo confirms the project name and description and indicates that the details will be stored in a folder located at: C:\QSR Projects\Training. [Finish] • (Note: If you wish to save your project details onto a floppy disk, as is sometimes necessary in a computer laboratory environment, use the 'Custom' set-up, where an alternative file location – eg. A:Leisure Choice can be specified) • The NVivo 'Project Pad' now appears on the screen, as shown below. • (Note: This screen can also now be obtained by clicking on 'Open a Project' in the Launch Pad and selecting Project Name 'Leisure Choice').

  40. Figure 8.11. NVivo:Create Document • In the Project Pad, click on Create a Document. The New Document Wizard: Creation dialog box appears and offers a range of options - for this demonstration, select the first option: Locate and import readable external file(s). [Next] • Locate the first text file – in this case Int_Mark.rtf – on the hard disk or floppy disk. [Open] • The New Document Wizard: Obtain Name box offers a range of ways of providing a name and description for the file. In this case, select the first option: Use the source file name as document name, and first paragraph as description. [Finish] This means that NVivo will refer to this document by the name of: 'Int_Mark.rtf' and, when appropriate, will also use the more detailed Description: 'Mark (Age 27, Male, Student, Income £8K)'. • Repeat this process for each the other two interview files. • Returning to the Project Pad. Click on Explore Documents to reveal the three files listed, as shown below.

  41. Figure 8.12. NVivo: Document attributes • In the Project Pad, select Documents and click on Edit a Document Attributes. • Create new Attribute is highlighted. In the Type the new attribute name box, type Age, then specify value type in this case 'Number'. [Apply] • Repeat for Gender (Value type: String), Empstat (Value type: String) and Income (Value type: Number). 'Descriptions' can be added in the space provided if you wish - eg. 'Annual salary, £'000s'. [Close] • This defines the Attributes to be used - similar to defining variables in SPSS. Values for each interviewee/transcript must now be recorded. • In the Project Pad, select Documents and click on Explore document attributes. • A spread-sheet-style table is presented, with document names down the side and attributes across the top – as below, but with the table spaces blank. • To enter the attribute data, in each space right-click, then click on New Value and enter the value [OK], as shown below. Once started, values which have already been use appear in the dialog box – clicking on these values removes the necessity to re-type frequently used values – eg. male and female – when a number of documents is involved.

  42. Figure 8.13. NVivo: Setting up a coding system Slide 8.42 • In the Project Pad, click on Nodes, then on Create a Node, then the Tree tab: the Create Node dialog box is displayed (Fig. 8.13A):

  43. NVivo: Setting up a coding system (contd.) • Type Main activity in the Title box and Main activity choice in the Description box [Create]: (1) Main activity appears in the left-hand box under Trees. • Double click on Main activity and it moves up into the Tree Nodes box. • In the Title box type Activity type; check that Address is 1; and in the Description box Activity type chosen [Create]: (1 1) Activity type now appears under (1) Main activity. • Double click on Activity type (1 1) and it moves up into the Tree Nodes box. • In the Title box, type Sport; check that Address is 1; and in the Description box type Sport and physical recreation [Create]: (1 1 1) Sport now appears under (1 1) Activity • Repeat step 6 for the following (Address will automatically update): • Node (1 1 2): Title: Social Description: Informal social activities • Node (1 1 3): Title: Culture Description: Cultural activities • Node (1 1 4): Title: Friends Description: Activities with friends

  44. Figure 8.13. NVivo: Setting up a coding system (contd.) The Create Node dialog box now appears (FIG 8.13B)

  45. Figure 8.13. NVivo: Setting up a coding system (contd.) • Restore (1) Main activity to the Tree Nodes box and repeat steps 4-7 for: • Node TitleDescription • (1 2) Influence Influence/background/experience • (1 2 1) Parents Parental influence • (1 2 2) Teachers Teacher influence • (1 2 3) Peers Peer influence • (1 3) Present Present constraints • (1 3 1) Time Availability of time • (1 3 2) Money Availability of money • (1 3 3) Fitness Need to be fit • (1 3 4) Commitments Commitments - work, study etc. • (1 4) Personal Personal attitudes • (1 4 1) CompetitiveCompetitive outlook • (1 4 2) Social Social outlook • (1 4 3) Routine Anti-routine • (1 4 4) ActiveDesire to be physically active • (1 4 5) Team Team-orientated • (1 5) Events Key events • (1 5 1) Coaching Coaching, tuition, etc. • (1 5 2) Money Change in financial situation • (1 5 3) Relationships Change in key personal relationships • (1 5 4) ReadingReading something, eg. review, book

  46. Figure 8.13. NVivo: Setting up a coding system (contd.) • A rudimentary coding system has now been created. It can be examined and edited by clicking on Explore Nodes in the Project Pad - as shown in the Node Explorer(Fig. 8.13C).

  47. Figure 8.14. NVivo: Coding text • In the project pad, click on Documents and Browse a Document. The list of document files is presented. Select Int_Mark [OK]. Mark's interview transcript is presented. • Block in: 'playing football', then click on Coder at the bottom right of the screen and click on Activity type, then Sport then on Code. • Block in:'While the football's on, because of training twice a week and needing to be fairly serious about keeping fit I probably only go to a pub once - or at most twice - a week'. Click on Coder at the bottom right of the screen and click on Present then on Commitments and then on Code. • To provide a visual display of the results of coding, click on View and select Coding stripes. The 'coding stripe' appears to the right. • Repeat this process for: 'needing to be fairly serious about keeping fit': code it Present and Fitness. 'I don't have the time or the money to do much more': code it twice: Time and Money. • This process can be repeated for the other parts of Mark's interview abstract, using the notes in Figure 8.6. • The screen should now appear as in the Document Browser below. • This process can be repeated for the other two interview transcripts.

  48. Figure 8.15. NVivo Search • In the Project Pad, select Search. The Search Tool dialog box is displayed, as shown below. This has three sections: Find; In this Scope; and And Spread Finds. • In Find: double click on Node to reveal the Single Node Lookup dialog box. • Click on Choose and, in the Choose Node box, select the Trees then (1) Main activity then (1 3) Present then (1 3 1) Time [OK]. This returns you to the Single Node Lookup dialog box. • In the Single Node Lookup dialog box: • the Return box indicates how the results of the search will be stored – keep the default All finds as a node • the Name box indicates the name of the folder/file in which the results will be stored – keep the default /Search Results/Single Node Lookup. • In this Scope: indicates the type of documents which will be searched – keep the default All Documents. • And Spread Finds: indicates the spread of text to be retrieved around each 'find' of the search – for example, a number of characters either side of the find, or the surrounding paragraph – set the number to 40 for this exercise. • Click Run Search. • The results of the search are placed in a new 'Search Results' node (see 'Search Results' below). You are given two options to view the results: Show Node in Explorer or Browse Node. Select the latter – the results are displayed in the Search Results/Single Node Lookup- Node Browser as shown below. • Searching need not be dependent on pre-set nodes. For example, occurrences of the word friends could identified and listed by select Text instead of Node in step 2 above and entering the search text friends rather than specifying a node.

  49. Figure 8.16. NVivo: Dealing with search results • In the Project Pad, select Nodes and click on Explore Nodes. • In the Node Explorer: click on Trees and it will be seen that, in addition to the Main activity group of nodes, there is now one or more Search Results nodes, as shown below. • Right click on any Search Result to: • view (browse) it; • delete if it will not be required in future - this is recommended to avoid confusion with later searches; • rename it (Inspect/Change Node's properties) • Incorporate it into the coding system.

  50. Figure 8.17. NVivo: Search and code + Selective search

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