Unit II Sexuality over the Lifespan

1. EDGC 682 Counseling Issues in Sexuality Unit II Sexuality over the Lifespan Dean Owen, Ph.D., LPCC Professor Emeritus Department of Foundational and Graduate Studies in Education

2. The only time sex should be taken seriously is when you’re not getting any. George Carlin (1937-2008)

3. Individual patterns of sexual orientation probably develop as the result of the interaction among biological, social, cultural, and psychological factors. The process is called psychosexual development.

4. Prior to the writings of Sigmund Freud, most in the western world regarded children as asexual beings.

5. With the publication of his work Three Essays on the Theory Sexuality in 1905 Freud was the first to seriously address the issue of child sexuality. • He did so by postulating the existence of: • A stage theory of psycho-sexual development which he suggested had life long effects on psychological development. • Libido: a source of sexual energy or drive that is the prime motivator of all sexual behavior • Erogenous Zones (and fixation) Biological instinct

6. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Biological instinct

7. Libido: a source of sexual energy or drive that is the prime motivator of all sexual behavior Biological Drive…..

8. Erogenous Zones (and fixation)

9. Love isn’t an emotion or an instinct….it’s an art. Mae West Actor (1893-1980)

10. Erik Erikson Many theories emphasize the importance of socialization (interactions with others) in the psychosexual development. Erik Erikson described eight stages each of which is associated the a crisis that must be resolved. 1902-1994

11. Erik Erikson Eight Stages of Development 1. Infancy: Gaining trust in self and environment vs. feeling mistrust and wariness of others. 2. Ages 1 ½ to 3: Achieving a sense of automomy vs. shame and doubt over one’s ability to be independent. 3. Ages 3-5 ½ : Learning how to take initiative comfortably vs. Feeling guilty over motivations and needs. 4. 5 ½-12: (Time when school and other external forces gain more significance) Gaining a sense of industry and competence vs. feeling inferior and inept.

12. Erik Erikson Eight Stages of Development 5. Adolescence: Forming a sense of one’s identity vs Role confusion and self-questioning. 6. Young adulthood: Achieving intimacy and connection with others vs. Isolation and lonliness. 7. Middle adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation. 8. Late adulthood: Integrity vs despair

13. Learning Theorists purport to explain much of human sexual behavior as the result of complex interactions of stimuli, reinforcement and punishers…. Classical conditioning or respondent learning…. Operant conditioning or instrumental learning Social learning Sex is learned

14. I can remember when the air was clean and sex was dirty. • George BurnsUS actor & comedian (1896 - 1996)

15. Classical Learning (aka Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning.) Ivan Pavlov

16. Classical Learning (aka Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning.) A form of associative learning first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov

17. Classical Learning (aka Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning.) The Model UCR UCS

21. Sex and classical conditioning…. ?????

22. To err is human, but it feels divine. Mae West, Actor , 1893-1980

23. John B. Watson The Little Albert study of 1920

24. John B. Watson: The Little Albert experiment was an experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning. This study was also an example of stimulus generalization. It was conducted in 1920 by John B. Watson along with Rosalie Rayner, his assistant whom he later married. The study was done at Johns Hopkins University. John B. Watson, after observing children in the field, was interested in finding support for his notion that the reaction of children, whenever they heard loud noises, was prompted by fear. Furthermore, he reasoned that this fear was innate or due to an unconditioned response. He felt that following the principles of classical conditioning, he could condition a child to fear another distinctive stimulus which normally would not be feared by a child.

25. John B. Watson: Loud sound (Unconditioned Stimulus) -> Fear (Unconditioned Response) Natural response. Rat (Neutral Stimulus) + Loud sound (Unconditioned Stimulus)-> Fear (Unconditioned Response) During pairing them. Rat (Conditioned Stimulus) -> Fear (Conditioned Response) The fear response later generalized to ….. (Stimulus Generalization) White Rabbit (17 days post conditioning….) Furry Dog Seal Skin Coat Santa Claus beard composed of white cotton balls….

26. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner

27. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.

28. Operant Conditioning Key Terms: Reinforcement Shaping Acquisition Free Operant Punishment Extinction Spontaneous recovery This is where superstitious behavior is learned! Post hoc ergo propter hoc!

29. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Any consequence of a behavior that enhances the likelihood of a future occurrence of the behavior. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

30. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Any consequence of a behavior that enhances the likelihood of a future occurrence of the behavior. Primary Reinforcer: A consequence such as food, water that satisfies a fundamental biological. Secondary Reinforcer: A consequence such as social approval or money that has acquired reinforcement properties through previous learning. A symbolic or representational reward that could be exchanged for a more primary reinforcer. Extrinsic Reinforcer: A reward that is provided externally to the individual. Intrinsic Reinforcer: a reward that one gives to oneself…..the behavior in which one is engaging generates a drive to continue…..

31. Operant Conditioning Punishment: Any consequence of a behavior that reduces the likelihood of a future occurrence of the behavior. Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

32. Operant Conditioning Shaping: Selectively reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to a desired goal. (Successive approximations). The is roughly akin to learning in stages or in steps. How do you teach a mouse to press a bar….or a chicken to peck a target???

33. Operant Conditioning Extinction: The gradual decay of a learned behavior as the result of a failure to reinforce it. Behavior that is not reinforced generally does not persist. Reinforcement Schedules determine how easily behavior can be extinguished. Fixed, Variable, or intermittant, or random.

34. Operant Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery: The temporary reemergence of learned behavior following extinction.

35. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning set the stage for what has become known as “Behavior Modification” and for a branch of therapy known as behavioral counseling. It’s all about controlling contingencies and what is reinforced and what is punished.

36. Operant Conditioning Intrinsic Motivation Definitions People often choose to invest considerable time in activities without apparent reward. The cause underlying such behaviors is intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is defined as engagement in actions for their own sake with the only tangible benefit being outcomes such as pleasure, learning, satisfaction, interest, or challenge. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation occurs when learners engage in activities for the purpose of attaining rewards, such as praise or high grades (Alderman, 1999). Engaging in behavior to avoid punishment is also regarded as an extrinsic motivation.

37. Operant Conditioning Enhancing Intrinsic Motivation Some researchers believe that intrinsic motivation can be enhanced through the use of particular strategies, and have sought a correlation between the design of specific educational materials and an increase in learning performance. Thus far, studies have found no evidence to establish that the interest value of material is a determinant--as opposed to a consequence--of learning (Parker & Lepper, 1992). However, some useful strategies that can promote intrinsic motivation have been proposed.

38. Operant Conditioning Lepper and Hodell (1989) suggest four methods for enhancing intrinsic motivation: Challenge: Design challenging activities which convey the message to the learners that they have competitive skills. It is essential to find a balance between learner competence and the difficulty of the goals. Overly difficult goals are unlikely to increase learner motivation to continue the task if the learners perceive they will never reach the goal. Likewise, goals that are too easily attained do not sufficiently challenge learners to encourage skill development.

39. Operant Conditioning Curiosity: Activities that create disequilibria for the learners can elicit curiosity. Presenting discrepant ideas--those that conflict with their prior knowledge or beliefs--can prompt students to seek information that will resolve the discrepancy. As with challenge, moderate discrepancies are most effective because they are easily incorporated into an individual's mental framework; large discrepancies may be rapidly discounted (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996, p.277). Control: A sense of responsibility will be better fostered in learners if they are allowed to make meaningful choices in the learning process. Fantasy: The design of simulations and games that involve fantasy can to encourage skill development.

40. Social Learning Theory Observational learning… Monkey see, Monkey do!

41. Social Learning Theory The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. (Learning to drive a car could be a real trip!!!)

42. Social Learning Theory Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences., including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.

43. Social Learning Theory • The component processes underlying observational learning are: • Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), • (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), • (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and • (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.

44. Social Learning Theory The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised. This may be the most powerful of all psychological behavior modification strategies. Marketing is basically an attempt to influence an individual in such a way as to create a need that can only be satisfied through the purchase of the marketer’s product.

45. Social Learning Theory 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

46. Social script theory teaches that human behavior is controlled by complex social scripts that integrate sexual behavior. According to Gagnon and Simon (1973) nearly all human behavior is controlled by social scripts which are assimilated from the wider culture.

47. A unified model of sexual development considers three crucial strands that eventually integrate to form adult sexuality: 1. Gender identity: (core gender identity) is the gender(s), or lack thereof, a person self-identifies as. It is not necessarily based on biological fact, either real or perceived, nor is it always based on sexual orientation. The gender identities one may identify as include male, female, both, somewhere in between, or neither.

48. A unified model of sexual development considers three crucial strands that eventually integrate to form adult sexuality: 1. Gender identity: (core gender identity) is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness. 2. sexual response and orientation (Identifying one’s own sexual orientation involves prelabling, self-labeling and social labeling) and, 3. the capacity for dyadic intimacy.

49. Infant Sexuality In infancy and childhood the sex organs respond to many types of stimuli. Babies are sensitive over the entire surface of their bodies and what is characteristic of the process of maternal bonding is that babies appear to learn and appreciate the touch of their mothers. Santrock, 2008

50. Infant Sexuality (Male) Calderone (1983) reported that ultrasound images confirmed that male fetuses experience spontaneous erections. Lively & Lively (1991) reported that infant boys experience erections easily and seem to enjoy stimulation. A number of male infants seem to experience orgasms as evidenced by a sequence of tension building, rhythmic muscular contractions, and pelvic thrusting, culminating in what appears to be pleasurable sensations and relaxation. Kinsey (1948) reported orgasms in 32% of subjects under one year of age and 57% between ages 2-5. Santrock, 2008