Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies

1. Sport in Society:Issues and Controversies Chapter 12 Sports and the Media: Could They Survive Without Each Other?

2. Characteristics of the Media • Print media: words & images on paper • Newspapers, magazines & fanzines, books, catalogues, event programs, trading cards • Electronic media: words, commentary, & images transmitted by audio and/or video devices and technologies • Radio, television, film, video games, the Internet and online publications

3. The Media Provide • Information • Interpretation • Entertainment

4. Media Content always edited and “re-presented” by those who control media organizations Editing decisions are based on one or more of these goals: • Making profits • Shaping values • Providing a public service • Building artistic and technical reputations • Expressing self

5. Media representations of sports are carefully edited to highlight dramatic action “Quick! Bring the camera—this crash will boost our ratings!

6. Media and Power The media often serve the interests of those with power and wealth in society As corporate control of media has become more concentrated, media content highlights • Consumerism • Individualism • Competition • Class inequality as natural and necessary in society

7. The X Games were created by ESPN. ESPN is owned by ABC. ABC is owned by Disney. The power behind the X Games makes it difficult for the athletes to maintain the expressive, noncompetitive culture of alternative sports.

8. What If . . . • All TV documentaries were sponsored by environmental groups, labor organizations women’s groups? • Wouldn’t we ask questions about the content of those programs, and why we see and hear what we do? • 99% of all sports programming in the media was sponsored by capitalist corporations? • Shouldn’t we ask questions about program content, whose interests it serves, and why we see and hear what we do?

9. Characteristics of the Internet The Internet • Extends and radically changes (potentially) our connections with the world • Is not limited to sequential programming • Enables each of us to be the “editors” of our own media experiences, if we wish • Gives us the potential to create our own sport realities and experiences as spectators and virtual athletes

10. It is becoming more difficult to distinguish the simulations and media representations of sports today

11. Video Games & Virtual Sports Research is needed to help answer questions such as: • What are the dynamics of playing video sport games and virtual sports, and how do they differ from other sport-related experiences? • How are video sport game experiences linked with other sport experiences? • What ideological themes are structured into the images and actions in video sport games? • Will virtual sports compliment or replace sports as we know them today?

12. Video Games as Simulated Sports • The graphics and images in video games now come close to matching images in televised sports • TV producers now use special filters to make the action in televised games look like video games • Some athletes use video sport games to train • Some children today are introduced to sports through video games • Being good at playing video sport games is a source of status among many young people • Playing sport video games provides regular social occasions for many people, especially young males

13. Do Sports Depend on the Media? • No, not when they are organized by and for the players themselves • Yes, when they are organized as forms of commercial entertainment • Media coverage attracts attention to sports and provides news of results • Television coverage remains a key factor in the growth and expansion of commercial sports

14. Table 12.1TV Rights Fees, 1986-2006 (in millions) Sport 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 NFL 400 900 1100 2200 3735 MLB 183 365 420 417 560 NBA 30 219 275 660 767 NHL 22 38 77 120 70 NASCAR 3 NA NA 412 560 NCAA Men’s B-ball Tournament 31 143 216 216 550 NCAA (all women’s championships) NA NA NA NA 19 WNBA NA NA NA 0 0

15. Escalating media rights fees for the Olympics (in millions) Figure 12.2

18. Have Sports Sold Out to the Media? Probably not – for two reasons: • Sports are not shaped primarily by the media in general or TV in particular • Sports are social constructions that emerge in connection with many social relationships • The media, including TV, do not operate in a political and economic vacuum • Media are regulated by government and market factors, which influence and set limits on media coverage & content

19. As more people use the electronic media to consume professional sports, local newspaper turn more attention to the coverage of high school and college sports.

20. Do the Media Depend on Sports? • Most media do not depend on sports • Daily newspapers depend on “sports sections” for circulation and ad revenues • Many television companies depend on sports to fill programming schedules, attract male viewers and the sponsors that want to reach them • Many sport events have media audiences with clearly identifiable “demographics”

21. Trends in Televised Sports • Rights fees have skyrocketed since 1960s • Sports programming has increased dramatically • As more events are covered, ratings for particular events have decreased • Audience fragmentation has occurred • Television companies use sports events to promote other programming • Television companies are parts of conglomerates that now own teams, sport events, and other businesses

22. ProgramDate Average Household Rating (in millions of households)* 1. M*A*S*H* (special) 2/28/83 50.2 2. Winter Olympics 2/23/94† 45.7 3. Super Bowl XXX 1/28/96 44.2 4. Super Bowl XXXII 1/25/98 43.6 5. Super Bowl XXXIV 1/30/00 43.6 6. Super Bowl XXVIII 1/30/94 42.9 7. Super Bowl XXXV I 2/3/02 42.6 8. Cheers 1/20/93 42.4 9. Super Bowl XXXI 1/26/97 42.0 10. Super Bowl XXVII 1/31/93 42.0 11. Super Bowl XL 2/5/06 41.6* 12. Winter Olympics 2/25/94† 41.5 13. Super Bowl XX 1/26/86 41.5 14. Dallas 11/21/80 41.5 15. Super Bowl XXXVIII 2/1/04 41.4 16. Super Bowl XXXV 1/28/01 41.3 17. Super Bowl XXXIX 2/6/05 41.1 18. Super Bowl XXXVII 1/26/03 40.7 19. Seinfeld 5/14/98 40.5 20. Super Bowl XVII 1/30/83 40.5 21. Super Bowl XXI 1/25/87 40.0 22. Super Bowl XVI 1/24/84 40.0 23. Super Bowl XXXIII 1/31/99 39.9 24. Super Bowl XXIX 1/29/95 39.4 25. Super Bowl XIX 1/20/85 39.4 *Note: revised to add Super Bowl XL, 2006

23. Global Economic Factors in the Sports-Media Relationship Global economic factors intensify the sport-media relationship; large corporations need vehicles for developing global -- • name recognition • cultural legitimacy • product familiarity • ideological support for a way of life based on consumption, competition, and individual achievement

24. Executives’ decisions in global media companies influence what sports we see and read about in the media

25. Alcohol & Tobacco Sponsorships • Corporations selling alcohol and tobacco use sports to promote products in connection with activities that people define as healthy • If these corporations cannot sponsor televised events, they put signage on people, equipment, and facilities that are viewed during television coverage.

26. Corporate Sponsorships and Gender Ideology • Decision-making power in large media corporations rests with many male executives who love sports • The values and experiences of men are deeply embedded in the cultures of these corporations • When sports emphasize competition, domination, and achievement, many male executives feel that these are crucial factors in their companies • This means they will pay large fees to hire coaches and athletes as “motivational” speakers in their companies

27. Images and Messages in Media Sports (I) Media coverage is constructed around specific themes and messages: • Success themes • Emphasis on winners, losers, and final scores • Emphasis on big plays, big hits, and sacrificing self for team success (continued)

28. Images and Messages in Media Sports (II) • Masculinity and femininity themes • Coverage privileges men over women • Heterosexuality is assumed; homosexuality is erased and ignored • Coverage reproduces dominant ideas about manhood, but may challenge ideas about femininity(continued)

29. Images and Messages in Media Sports (III) • Race and ethnicity themes • Racial ideology has influenced coverage of black athletes, especially males • Whiteness is erased in coverage; it is assumed as the standard • Nationalism is emphasized • “We” - “They” distinctions are common • Individualism is highlighted • Aggression is glorified; athletes are presented as warriors

30. Figure 12.4 Media sports present real-life violence. Should sport programs be rated for violence? “Yes, I KNOW you watch CSI and Alias, but this hockey game contains real violence, so off to your room now!”

31. Media Impact on Sport-Related Behaviors • Active participation in sports • Some negative, some positive effects • Attendance at sport events • Media generally increase attendance at elite events, but may decrease attendance at local events • Gambling on sports • Media are indirectly linked to gambling • Internet may change this to direct link

32. Audience Experiences With Media Sports Research shows: • Watching television sports is not a major activity in the lives of most adults • Football “widows” and men who just sit in front of the TV watching sports are rare • Men & women who live together often watch sports together • Most partners in couples accommodate each other’s viewing habits over time

33. The Profession of Sports Journalism • The work of sports journalists does matter when it comes to cultural ideology and public consciousness • Tensions between players and sportswriters have intensified as differences in their salaries and backgrounds have become more pronounced • Ethical issues have become increasingly important in sports journalism because the stakes are so high for teams, athletes, coaches, owners, etc.

34. Media differences in coverage of sports Radio/Television Coverage • Emphasizes entertainment primarily • Offers play-by-play images and narratives • Provides real-time representations of events • Success depends on hype and visual action • Highlights heroic plays and dominant ideology • Provides support for sports and sport personalities Newspaper/Magazine Coverage • Emphasizes information and interpretation primarily • Offers previews and summaries of events • Provides written representation of events • Success depends on credibility • Highlights facts and dominant ideology • Provides criticism of sports and sport personalities

35. Role Characteristics Job security Salary Popularity/public recognition Freedom of expression in job Purpose of role Role expectations Management expectations Opportunities for investigative reporting On-the-job contacts Relationships with players Attachment with public SportswritersSports Announcers High Low Low High Low High Moderately restricted Heavily restricted Entertain; provide Entertain and information “sell” sport events Be trustworthy Be knowledgeable investigators entertainers Don’t offend the Don’t offendthe advertisers sponsors Occasionally Rarely Copy desk editors Broadcast executives, and subeditors team management,sponsors/advertisers Often tense and Often friendly antagonistic and supportive Based on credibility Based on style and writing skills personality

36. “If it bleeds, it leads” in the local news and in sports. “I used to do sports, so I know the rule at Fox: If it bleeds, it leads.”

38. Sportswriters Work behind scenes Seldom recognized Low salaries; paid by publications Low regulation by sport management Job focuses on providing information Announcers Celebrity status Public recognition High salaries; often paid by management Comments regulated by management Job focuses on “selling” the sport Comparison of Sportswriters and Announcers

39. Print Media News & information Summaries of past events Concrete information Success based on preserving credibility Highlights behind-the-scenes stories Provides more critical coverage Broadcast Media Entertainment Play-by-play coverage Real-time action Success based on generating hype Highlights action and heroic displays Provides more supportive coverage Comparison of Print and Broadcast Media