The Reformation

1. The Reformation Chapter 11 EQs: Why did people become upset with the Catholic Church? What were the main arguments of the Reformation movement? Where did the Reformation change political, economic and social status in Europe? How did the Catholic Church respond?

2. The Issues and Early Movements • Underlying Causes = The corruption and divisions within the church in the 14th and 15th century (Babylonian Captivity at Avignon, the Great Schism, the Conciliar Movement, The Banquet of the Chestnuts and Borgia popes) • Basically, the church had lost all of its piety in the eyes of many individuals who began to think like individuals! • This essential created movements of what is called “lay criticism”, meaning the “lay” people of the church (those on the lowest ends of the totem pole including average citizens and some monks) • The essential principle of laity was to KISS, to not complicate religion with vows, practices or even politics (William of Ockham who said "the simplest explanation is usually the correct one". ) • Examples included The Brothers of the Common Life or Modern Devotion which stressed individual piety and an active common life…they also stressed preaching the word in the “vernacular” meaning NO DOMINATION by Latin

3. Martin Luther • Germany being a diverse, divided region, unlike France or England, was an area where change in the church could actually take place • Martin Luther was a lay monk who originally wanted to be a lawyer but ended up joining the monastery… through his travels to Rome and back to Wittenberg, Luther observed the corruption of the church firsthand…and after listening to the sermons of John Tetzel, Luther began to conclude 2 things… • 1) INDULGENCES ARE WRONG…one should not have to pay for salvation (by this time, the selling of Indulgences had become an enterprise that even the wealthiest banking families in Europe were profiting from) • 2) Only by faith alone and self interpretation (Humanist principle) could one attain salvation and understand the word of God…in English, you don’t need the church to tell you everything to be a good Christian!

4. Martin Luther • Spurred by John Tetzel’s sermons, Luther wrote his “95 Theses”, the list of complaints against the Catholic Church (more on Friday) • In reaction to this, the Catholic Church declared heresy on Luther’s part (Exsurge Domine by Pope Leo X) and moved to excommunicate Luther • Luther was “put on trial” through the Diet of Worms (no they did not eat worms), eventually put under imperial ban and lived under hidden protection for more than a year • LUCKILY for Luther, Charles V became distracted by wars between France and Spain over Italy AND by invasions by Turks (Suleiman)

5. It Spread like Wildfire! • The Printing Press along with the translation of information into common languages practically allowed the ideas of the Reformation to spread • The Reformation also received massive support in German states by magistrates who saw it has a way to enforce new laws…princes in Saxony and Hesse also used it to consolidate territorial power • Peasants now became empowered…they saw Luther as their leader against monastic land owner corruption…between 1524-1526 1000s of peasants revolted, however, the revolts were not supported by Luther and many peasants died

6. Other Refomers • Ulrich Zwingli • Led the Swiss Reformation movement…this reformation was supported in Switzerland by 2 factors • Nationalism w/the desire to end mercenary army trade (the Swiss were mercenaries, The Swiss Guard for instance is used to protect the Vatican) • The corruption the came from the councils of Constance and Basel (which are in Switzerland) • Basis was that whatever lacked literal support in the Holy Scriptures was to be neither believed or practice • Movement was centered on Zurich • Zwingli differed on several Lutheran opinions on the sacraments…Zwingli argued the “body of Christ” was spiritual in the Communion process whereas Luther argued a more literal Catholic interpretation • After civil war broke out in Switzerland (in which Zwingli lost his life), self determinism as to choice of religion for the individual Swiss cantons was established

7. Other Reformers • John Calvin • Came from France, where it was certainly dangerous to speak out against the Catholic church • Calvinism took over as the dominate Protestant movement after Luther’s death…Calvinists focused mainly on predestination and the ideas of reordering society to fit God’s plan • Calvin suffered persecution in France, so he fled to Germany, only to end up in Geneva (Switzerland), the last of the cantons to switch to Protestantism…there Calvin became a “divine” leader • He set up what would generally be used by other Protestant sects as the “political” structure of a church…1)5 pastors, 2) teachers or doctors of the divinity, 3) a council of church elders, 12 elected people and 4) deacons to operate the church and dispense charity • Calvinist Geneva would eventually become a haven for many Protestants who were later persecuted in France and Spain

8. For some people, the Reformation was not moving fast enough, they desired a more rapid and thorough implementation of apostolic Christianity and a more visible moral transformation of the church • One such group was the Anabaptists (Re-baptizers) who believed that baptism should happen at adulthood when people had choice, not at infancy when people had no choice • Anabaptists took a utopian approach to society, choosing conformity and separation (think THE AMISH)…they refused to take oaths of allegiance to a nation, refused to fight (pacifism) and refused to vote or participate in government • However, some Anabaptists were radical…a group took over the city of Munster, Germany from 1534-1535…they decreed that all Catholics and Protestants must convert to their beliefs or leave…when they left, armies from neighboring states laid siege to Munster…the radicals tried to self sustain as long as they could, resorting to polygamy and commune life…eventually, the radicals were caught and left to die in cage hung from the cathedral • A more moderate form of Anabaptists was founded by Menno Simons not long after (Mennonites!)

9. Protestant Consolidation and Victory • Charles V did not forget about Luther and the Protestants despite his distractions…he returned in 1530 to deal with the issue at the Diet of Augsburg…he ostensibly demanded that all Protestants revert to Catholicism • That was not happening! The Lutherans formed their own coalition, the Schmalkaldic League…supported by several German princes, it took up the Augsburg Confession (from the Diet of Augsburg) and eventually took hold as Charles V once again was distracted by war • From here, the Lutheran Reformation would find adherents in Denmark, Norway, Sweden…this growing support eventually forced Charles V to accept the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, essentially making the division between Protestants and Catholics permanent

10. The English Reformation • Early attempts to limit and reform the Catholic Church in England had taken place (Edward vs. church taxes/lands, John Wycliffe and the Lollards), but as the Reformation started to spread, the Catholic Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and his successor Sir Thomas More rebuked it from England’s shores • Then there was Henry VIII and his wife Catherine of Aragon, devout Catholic…the problem, she couldn’t get pregnant (to Henry, she was cursed by God since he was her second husband)! She only had one daughter, Mary. • His solution! I will divorce that empty vessel and replace her with her hot, young lady in waiting Anne Boelyn…problem, the Pope nor Cardinal Wolsey would grant the annulment (political reasons) • The ultimate solution! DIVORCE THE CATHOLIC CHURCH and make the king of England the supreme head of the Church of England (Anglican) • The English Parliament (becoming known as the Reformation Parliament) secured the legal establishment of the king as head of the church in England • It also established the Act of Supremacy, declaring Henry “the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England” (1534)…when Sir Thomas More, Cardinal refused to recgonize this act, OFF WITH HIS HEAD! He was replaced by Thomas Cranmer

11. Henry’s Wives and the Aftermath • Henry didn’t have much luck with Anne Boelyn…she also had only 1 daughter (Elizabeth) and many miscarriages…she was eventually executed for treason and adultery • Jane Seymour produced a male heir (Edward VI) but died…Henry then married Anne of Cleves sight unseen by request of Thomas Cromwell (to consolidate power with another Protestant state)…she was WOOF, was annulled and Cromwell was executed…then there was Catherine Howard, beheaded for adultery…his last wife was Catherine Parr survived and married again after Henry’s death • At Henry’s death, his son Edward VI took the throne at age 10…during his short reign the Acts of Uniformity were created and Thomas Cranmer led the Anglican Church…upon his death however, Mary succeeded to the throne (having Cranmer executed for treason) and brought back Catholicism until her death

12. The Counter Reformation • The church certainly made attempts to reform…several religious orders made changes during the Reformation period • Theatines – sought to reform church leadership • Capuchins – wanted to revive charitable ways in the church • Somaschi and Barnabite – repair the moral, spiritual beliefs and physical harm brought to Italians affected by wars • Ursulines – nuns who created schools for girls • Oratorians – promoted Catholic literature and music • The most reform famous order was the Jesuit Order (Society of Jesus) founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola • The primary goal of the Jesuit order was to embody a program of spiritual discipline that encouraged believers to transform their spiritual selves through discipline and practice

13. The Counter Reformation • Reformation successes and the pleas of Charles V forced Pope Paul to call a council to reform and reassert church doctrine • The council met in Trent in northern Italy, however, the reform process occurred over an 18 year period, with several interruptions due to war and plague…it met from 1545 – 1547, 1551-1552 and 1562-1563…a period which also so 4 popes in office • This council was different from those of the Conciliar movement in that the Pope actually had direct control, voting was limited to the highest levels of the clergy only and theologians and lay church members were not permitted to participate • The most important reforms were the end to the selling of benefices (church office) and the end to the abusive selling of indulgences • The council did not cave to all Protestant complaints…education of the clergy was left alone…good works through salvation was untouched…the church’s interpretation of the Holy Scriptures was still upheld as primary and it was declared that self-interpretation was heresy…sacred images, saints and relics were still considered venerable…there is still a purgatory!

14. Social Impacts • Religious Practices • Clergy membership declined and holidays began not to be practiced • Cloisters/monasteries vanished • Worship began to be practiced in the common language of the people • Shrines and relics were no longer venerated, indulgences declined • People had Bibles in their own homes • Education • Humanist implementation occurred in universities and schools and scholars were no longer subject to just “copying and memorizing” • Curriculum encourages self-interpretation of primary documents, not taking the word of the professors

15. Social Impacts • Women • Protestants took a firm stance against the degradation of women as temptresses/vixens and also their exaltation of pure virgins (the “be like Mary” concept) • New marriage rights gave women greater security and protection and also emphasized respect between marriage partners…divorces became more common based on specific grounds • Education opportunities for women also improved • Family Life • People got married later • Marries at first tended to be arranged however, it was recognized that forced marriages did not elicit appropriate feelings between partners, so people began to marry for love! • There was birth control however the Catholic Church shied away from it, so family sizes even in Protestant families still tended to be large • Wet Nursing