Introducing the Bible

1. Christianity: An Introduction Introducing the Bible

2. The Bible: Origin of the Term • “The Bible” – a collection of writings • La biblia – “the books” (Plural) • “Sacred Scripture”, “Holy Scripture” • Old Testament and New Testament • Old Testament: written in Hebrew (small sections in Aramaic), 39 or 46 books • New Testament: written in Greek, 27 books

3. Old Testament Overview • Five books of Law – also called the five books of Moses, Pentateuch, “scrolls”, Torah. • Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteonomy • Show how people came to be up until entry to promised land • Historical books – • Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther • History of the people of God from entry to promised land until Babylonian Exile

4. Old Testament Overview • The Prophets – writings of a group of individuals, inspired by the Holy Spirit, who made God’s will known to people over a period of time • Wisdom Writings – (Often grouped with the historical books) • Apocrypha – 7 books in dispute • Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes; deal with questions about how wisdom may be found

5. New Testament Overview • New Testament – importance to Christians, as it sets out the basic events and beliefs of the Christian gospel • Written in Greek • Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke John – “good news” – describe life of Jesus Christ, reaching climax in the resurrection • Synoptic Gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke

6. New Testament Overview • Letters/Epistles – teach about Christian beliefs and behaviors • Pastoral Letters – letters to Timothy, to Titus • History book – Acts of the Apostles • Revelation – theological vision at the end of history

7. Continuity between Old and New Testaments • “Old Testament” and “New Testament”: Christian Theological terms • The “Old” Law, prophets, writings: Torah, Neviim, Kethuvim: T + N + K = Tanakh • The “New”: Coming of Christ • What do you think of using “Old?” • Two options: treat Tanakh as something unrelated to Christianity, or show continuity? • Marcion – Christ was there to depose the old testament; was the Gnostic demigurge • Augustine of Hippo – “The New Testament lies hidden in the Old, and the Old Testament is unveiled in the new”

8. Continuity between Old and New Testaments • Matthew’s Gospel constantly brings continuity between Jesus and Moses; Paul’s letters trace lineage to Abraham • God of Israel is the God of the Christians • Old Testament institutions: prophecy, priesthood, monarchy • Jesus’ identity: Priest, prophet, king • How are these fulfilled?

9. Contents of the Bible • Christian Bible – 66/73 books; what is called “Scripture?” • Process – “fixing of the canon” • Greek kanon – “a rule” or “a fixed reference point” • Luke – Canonical • Thomas – “extra canonical” • Paul: “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting, and training in righteousness

10. Contents of the Bible • Early Christian writers – Justin the Martyr, for example: to be treated with equal authority • 2nd century: Irenaeus: writings show by then there were four accepted Gospels, and Acts of the Apostles and Letters had status of Scripture • Clement of Alexandria: recognized four gospels, Acts, fourteen letters of Paul, and Revelation; alongside “law and the prophets” were the “evangelical and apostolic writings” which were to be treated with authority

11. Contents of the Bible • 367 – Athanasius – circulated a letter which identified the 27 books of the New Testament; consensus fidelium “consensus of the faithful”– was important • Three criteria of evaluation to see if a writing was canonical: • Apostolic origins or connections; attributed to or based up one of the first generation Apostles • To what extend had they secured general acceptance within Christian communities throughout the world? • The extent it could be used liturgically Athanasius

12. Contents of the Bible • This process was not always easy or straightforward • Other items were seen as “regarded with favor” but not included: • First letter of Bishop Clement • Didache • Basic principle: recognition, not imposition

13. Contents of the Bible • The Reformation: New questions about Scripture • Martin Luther – caused doubt concerning four letters in the New Testament and seven in the Old Testament • Distinction drawn: Old Testament/Apocrypha – Seven books appeared in Greek and Latin Bibles but not some Hebrew Bibles • Council of Trent (1546) – these are regarded as scriptural; some Protestant groups dismissed them

14. Translation of the Bible • Written in Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, classical languages • In Islam, the Qur’an stays in Arabic • Vulgate – Jerome - Latin • Protestant reformers Luther & Calvin demanded access to all through the Bible being in everyday language • 14th Century – John Wycliffe – “champion of Bible translation” arguing English people had a right to read the Bible in their own language, rather than be forced to listen to Latin. John Wycliffe

15. Translation of the Bible • Early translations to English – from the Vulgate • Erasmus of Rotterdam • “Do penance the Kingdom of heaven is at hand” • “Repent, the Kingdom of heaven is at hand” • Luther – people had the right to read and interpret the Bible • Translated it to German himself • William Tyndale – compiled first English translation anonymously in Coverdale Bible • 1624: James I – commissioned a new translation, published in 1611, “King James Version” King James Version

16. Translation of the Bible • Today, the translation is much different. • For this we say until you by the word of the Lord, that we which are alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord shall not prevent them which are asleep. • For those translators, “prevent” means “precede”

17. Interpretation of the Bible • Hermeneutics – (Greek “to understand”) – method of biblical interpretation • Philo of Alexandria – Alexandrianschool of thought: allowed literal interpretation supplemented by allegory • Deeper meaning was needed • Eisegesis – interpreter reads any meaning he or she likes into the text Philo of Alexandria

18. Interpretation of the Bible • Antiochene school: (Diodore, John Crysostom, Theodore) historical location of Old Testament prophecies important; specific message relevant to those whom it was directly addressed; developed meaning for Christian readership • Western Church: Ambrose of Milan: threefold approach: • Natural sense • Moral sense • Rational/theological sense Ambrose of Milan

19. Interpretation of the Bible • Augustine : two-fold approach • Literal-fleshly-historical approach • Allegorical-mystical-spiritual approach • Sometimes both fit; Jerusalem: earthy city, heavenly city; others both • A purely historical approach is unacceptable; it must be a spiritual interpretation • Old Testament not abolished in Christ, but Christ opens up concealed truth Augustine

20. Interpretation of the Bible: The Quadriga • Middle Ages: Fourfold sense of Scripture or the “Quadriga”: • The literal sense of Scripture; all is taken at face value • The allegorical sense of Scripture; interpreted certain passages to produce ethical guidance for Christian conduct. • The tropological or moral sense; interpreted passages provide ethical guidance for Christian conduct • The anagogical sense; interpreted passages to indicate the grounds of Christian hope, pointing towards the future fulfillment of the divine promises in the New Jerusalem

21. Interpretation of the Bible: Allegorical Interpretation • Bernard of Clairvaux: Song of Songs • “Beams of our houses are of cedar, and our panels are of cypress” • Houses: mass of the Christian people, bound together with those of power and dignity. • Panels – firmly attached; the ordered lives of a proper clergy and administration of Church

22. Interpretation of the Bible • Potential weakness: idea that nothing should be believed if not literal • Luther: “In the Scriptures no allegory, tropology, or anagogy is valid, unless that same truth is explicitly stated literally somewhere else. Otherwise, Scripture would be a laughing matter”

23. Interpretation of the Bible • Universities tended to use the Quadriga method • Erasmus of Rotterdam: “Handbook for the Christian Soldier”: surface meaning of the text often conceals a deeper hidden meaning, which it is the task of the enlightened and responsible exegete to uncover. • Huldrych Zwingli- early Swiss Protestant reformers: interpreter is to establish “natural sense” of Scripture, not always the literal sense. • Make sue of various figures of speech: alloiosis, catachresis, and synecdoche • Christ with bread: “This is my body” Erasmus of Rotterdam

24. Devotional Reading of the Bible: Christian Spirituality • Bible can be read as a historical document for people looking to learn about the time around King Solomon • A sourcebook of Christian ideas • Also – spiritual refreshment • Spirituality – Hebrew ruach – “spirit” – the live of faith and what drives and motivated; lived religious experience • To achieve and sustain a relationship with God, many Christians turn to the Bible

25. Devotional Reading of the Bible: Medieval Conceptions • Carthusian writer Guigo II: four processes of discernment: • Reading (lectio) • Meditation (meditatio) • Prayer (oratio) • Contemplation (contemplatio) • People encounter God in this way and with these ideas: • Reading without meditation is sterile • Meditation without reading is prone to error • Prayer without meditation is lukewarm • Meditation without prayer is barren • Prayer with devotion achieves contemplation Guigo II

26. Medieval Conceptions • Geert Zerbolt van Zutphen: early mater of the devotiomoderna – • Reading of scripture prepares the reader for meditation; • meditation prepares the reader for prayer; • prayer prepares the reader for contemplation • Ignatius of Loyola: imaginative engagement: imagine one’s self within the Biblical narrative • First exercise: “When the contemplation is on something that is visible…the image will consist of seeing with the mind’s eye the physical place where the object we wish to contemplate is present • Ludwig of Saxony – Life of Christ: “recount things according to certain imaginative representations” Ignatius of Loyola

27. Protestant Spirituality • Protestant Reformation – 16th century – “rediscovery of the Bible” with new accessibility to laity • Invention of printing press helped accelerate the reformation • Three literary resources made available by reformers: • Biblical Commentary – Calvin, Luther, Zwingli had readers academic and lay • Expository Sermon – Continuous preaching – Calvin is known for 200 sermons on the book of Deuteronomy alone • Works ofBiblical Theology – Calvin Institutes of the Christian Religion – allowed readers to gain a new appreciation Calvin

28. Protestant Spirituality • Martin Luther: “A Simple Way to Pray” – written for his barber; an approach to prayer based on reading of biblical passes such as the Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments • Only a framework and must not obstruct the Holy Spirit; four basic elements: • Instruction – Need to trust God’s word • Thanksgiving – Thanks for all God has done • Confession- Acknowledge own failings and weakness • Prayer – Composes a prayer weaving these together Martin Luther

29. Protestant Spirituality • Charles Haddon Spurgeon – 19th century preacher – danger of an excessively technical approach to reading the Bible could be met by an emphasis upon meditation Charles Haddon Spurgeon

30. Biblical Themes and Imagery • Biblical themes and imagery are used in Christian spirituality: • How has the image been used? • Sample theme: darkness

31. Biblical Themes and Imagery: Darkness • In Scripture, God creates light and the universe becomes a dramatically different place • “The people who walked in darkness will see a great light” • Jesus is the “light of the world” • God’s presence is also seen as darkness: • Moses approaches God through darkness and cloud: the human inability to understand God • Paul: “seeing through a glass darkly”

32. Biblical Themes and Imagery: Darkness • “Darkness”: illuminates the human situation and encourages action leading to its improvement or spiritual development • Darkness as doubt • Darkness as symbol of sin. • Darkness as a symbol of divine unknowability Song of Songs: lovers “meeting in the darkness” John of the Cross:“Dark wood” of thecross