Language Preservation, Education, and Diversity

1. Language Preservation, Education, and Diversity Dr. Lindsay A. Morcom morcoml@queensu.ca

2. Overview • Aboriginal Languages and Education: What does it mean to you? • Programming for Aboriginal languages: Preservation and maintenance • Programming in Aboriginal languages: Language as a tool for education • Why Diversity is Key • Case Studies: Pokomchi’, Dene, and Michif • Focus on Immersion Programming

3. Programming for Aboriginal Languages • Cultural Reasons for Maintaining and Teaching Aboriginal Languages • Language as a tool for sharing culture • Language as a tool for maintaining order and community • Language as a unique system of expression • Language programming as a tool for affirming the validity, worth, and dignity of Aboriginal languages “Hotié nuhech’anię́ chu nuheyatié húton dézą, t’ąt’ú t’eh hot’įné dáhołʔą sí benerídí hasį.” "Our language and culture is the window through which we see the world.“ - Paul Disain, Dene Elder, Stony Rapids, SK (http://www.sicc.sk.ca/dene-elders-quotes.html)

4. Programming for Aboriginal Languages • Social Reasons for Maintaining and Teaching Aboriginal Languages • Learning from the After-Effects of the Residential School System • Social Wellbeing • Health: Healthcare recipients and providers • Environmental Protection “ki-ká-nihta-néhiyawihininki-ká-sohki-téhiyan mina ká-kístéyimotínki-t-aniskomakíwin.” “Knowing your language gives you an inner strength and pride in your heritage.” - Freda Ahenakew, Elder, Muskeg Lake First Nation (http://www.sicc.sk.ca/plains-cree-elders-quotes.html)

5. Programming for Aboriginal Languages • Academic Reasons for Maintaining and Teaching Aboriginal Languages • L2 Learners show: • Improved reading comprehension • Better ability to communicate in writing • Improved numeracy and non-verbal intelligence • Improved mental flexibility and enhanced creative thinking • Greater intercultural and international awareness

6. Programming in Aboriginal Languages “Indigenous peoples have the right to establish and control their educational systems and institutions providing education in their own languages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural methods of teaching and learning.” (United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, Article 14)

7. Reasons for Using Aboriginal Languages as a Medium for Education: • Immediate impacts: • Strengthens Culture-Based Educational programming • Lets students learn in their first language while acquiring their second • Gives students a context in which to build on previous experiences and increases community ties • Facilitates the use of traditional approaches to education in schools, and lets students explore ways of learning • Helps propagate traditional knowledge and values • Gives access to traditional practices that are important to the local way of life

8. Reasons for Using Aboriginal Languages as a Medium for Education • Impacts on Students’ future outcomes • Gives students a bridge between two cultures • Validates Aboriginal languages • Increases program relevance • Results in higher attendance and completion rates "Nóngom kici-kakinahomaté wigamigong izáhin pigo-imá kitá-anokísanágan ci anokíhin kíspin izásiwan kakinahomatéwigamigong.” “Post Secondary Education is important today, because you can't get a job without education.” - Mary Strongquill, Elder, Keeseekoose First Nation (http://www.sicc.sk.ca/nakaw%C4%93-elders-quotes.html)

9. Lifetime Earning Potential in Saskatchewan Figures from Howe (2011), Bridging the Aboriginal Education Gap in Saskatchewan.

10. Why Diversity is Key • North America has: • Approximately 57 Indigenous language families • At least 290 known Indigenous languages • Approximately 28 language isolates • (Campbell 1997)

11. Why Diversity is Key • Europe has: • Approximately 9 Indigenous language families • At least 80 known Indigenous languages • One Language Isolate

12. Linguistic Diversity: Cree atim api-w Dog sit-AN.INTR ‘The dog sits.’ api-w atim sit-AN.INTR dog ‘The dog sits.’ kaskitêsi-w atim black-AN.INTR Dog ‘The dog is black.’

13. Linguistic Diversity: Lillooet λ’ak ti=nk’yap=a go the=coyote=the ‘The coyote goes.’ nk’yap ti= λ’ak =a Coyote the=go=the ‘The one who goes is a coyote.’ (lit. ‘The goer coyotes’)

14. Case Study: Pokomchi’ • Spoken in Central Guatemala • About 90,000 speakers split between two main dialects • Widely spoken by people of all ages • In contact with Spanish and several related Mayan languages

15. Pokomchi’ Educational Situation • Challenges • Guatemala has the lowest literacy rate in Latin America • Rural areas face extreme poverty and limited access to education • rate in L1 is 5-10%; literacy rate in L2 is 35% • Country is recovering from a civil war waged largely against indigenous people • Bilingual education is dependent largely on foreign aid • Support for bilingual education waxes and wanes • Materials are hard to obtain and sometimes of low quality • Teacher training and bilingualism are problematic

16. Pokomchi’ Educational Situation • Strengths • Most ethnically Pokomchi’ people speak Pokomchi’ • Language is stable and unlikely to become seriously endangered • Pokomchi’ culture is vibrant • Local cultural institutions exist • Government policy exists including a Directorate of Bilingual and Intercultural Education • Schools contain a cultural component • Educational methods have proven successful

17. The Way Forward for Pokomchi’ • Should the focus be on: • Programming IN Pokomchi’; • Programming FOR Pokomchi’; or • A combination? • What factors need to be considered? • What steps can/should be taken? • What are the intended outcomes of programming?

18. Case Study: Dene • Also known as Dene Sųłiné or Chipewyan • Spoken in Northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and NWT • 6,000-10,000 speakers • Widely spoken in Dene communities by all ages in most (but not all) communities • In contact with English, other Athapaskan languages, and Woods Cree

19. Dene Educational Situation • Challenges • Dene language and culture were put under serious threat by the residential school system and are endangered • Language sometimes lacks terms for modern concepts • The quality of language instruction varies by location • Access to post-secondary and sometimes secondary education is a challenge due to remoteness • Employment is a problem due to remoteness and isolation, leading to some people leaving

20. Dene Educational Situation • Strengths • Remoteness contributes to community cohesion and culture • Most bands take a proactive approach to language maintenance • Dene is actively taught in schools in many Dene communities, and is often the language of instruction • Radio and TV programming exists • Strong support of Culture-Based Education • Community members are undergoing training to be Dene teachers • Language is taught at the University of Regina and FNUniv Satellite campuses • Revitalization in threatened communities is taking place with cooperation between elders, community leaders, and linguists • Networking with Navajo language programs and schools • Community and inter-community political and cultural organizations are creating learning materials, eg. Dene Language Retention Committee

21. Technology and Dene

22. Dene: There’s an App for That

23. The Way Forward for Dene • Should the focus be on: • Programming IN Dene; • Programming FOR Dene; or • A combination? • What factors need to be considered? • What steps can/should be taken? • What are the intended outcomes of programming?

24. Case Study: Michif • Combines elements of French and Cree: John ki:-wa:pam-e:wæ̃šæ̃-wa John PST-see.AN-3->3’ a dog-OBV‘John saw a dog’ (Bakker 1997) • Unique in the world’s languages • Developed in the Red River Valley during the fur trade • Community now in diaspora following government pressure to leave Manitoba and Riel rebellion • Fewer than 1000 speakers, mostly elderly • In contact with English, French, and several Aboriginal languages, though speakers generally only speak English in addition to Michif

25. Michif Educational Situation • Challenges • Only 2-3% of Métis people under 40 speak an indigenous language, rising to 12% of those over 75 • Michif is not always recognized as a language in its own right • Michif is not spoken in a cohesive area, or even by whole communities in most cases • Métis culture loss is often profound • Developing and following a revitalization plan is difficult due to widespread community and diverse membership • Underdocumented because it does not fit easily into a language family • Michif does not have a standardized writing system, and the mixed nature of Michif history and grammar makes developing one difficult • Language activists and linguists have not always collaborated for programming, resulting in documents and programs of varying quality

26. Michif Educational Situation • Strengths • Interest exists in relearning Michif • Mixed nature of communities with Métis students offers an opportunity to foster intercultural understanding • Has been declared the official historic language of the Métis Nation by the Métis National Council (2000) • Michif courses and resources aimed at adults and children are available through numerous institutions including the Gabriel Dumont Institute, Métis Resource Centre, and Manitoba Métis Federation, among others • Spoken widely in Turtle Mountain , North Dakota • Resources available online:

27. Examples of Michif Online Resources

28. The Way Forward for Michif • Should the focus be on: • Programming IN Michif; • Programming FOR Michif; or • A combination? • What factors need to be considered? • What steps can/should be taken? • What are the intended outcomes of programming?

29. Aboriginal Language Immersion • What is immersion programming? • Teaching in the language vs. teaching about the language • Strong Immersion Programming • Weak Immersion Programming • What are the goals of AL Immersion programming? • Linguistic • Academic • Social • How does Aboriginal Language (AL) immersion differ from other language immersion programs (ie. French Immersion)?

30. AL Immersion and Language Maintenance • Outcomes of strong and weak bilingual programming • Students acquire language naturally • Student age: early childhood to adulthood • Cultural knowledge • Language success stories • Hawaii • Maori • Mi’kmaq • Benefits when fluency is not achieved • Unsuccessful programs

31. AL Immersion and Academic Outcomes • Largest parental concern • Usborne et al. (2011) compared Mi’kmaq (strong) immersion and L2 instruction • AL Immersion had better English and Mi’kmaq skills • AL and mainstream language scores correlate in immersion but not with L2 instruction • Additive bilingualism • Skills transfer, particularly for literacy • Benefits of learning polysynthetic languages • Risks: Families and language skills

32. AL Immersion and Self Esteem • Wright and Taylor (1995) • Personal and collective self-esteem • Impacts on self esteem of different types of programs • Reasons for programming differences • Comprehension • Cultural Discontinuity Hypothesis • Affirmation of importance of heritage language • Status of co-ethnic teachers • Risks: Transition to mainstream language programming

33. Community Cooperation • Three key elements: • Speaker base • Financial resources • Advocacy and community support • Part of Aboriginal pedagogy • Contributes content, resources, curriculum, and perspectives • Ancient and modern traditional knowledge • Combining educational and linguistic expertise • Role modelling

34. What do the Best Programs Do? • Strong bilingual programming • Slow transition to mainstream language, if at all • Bring in community members • Role models • Models of natural language • Knowledge carriers • Incorporate and support families

35. pilamaya Kw’ashoy Qujannamiik Marsee T’oyaxs Intioxawehtaq Thank you miigwech Marsi Kinanâskomitinawaw Niá:wen Klekokleko GunalchÈesh Háw’aa