The Reformation

1. The Reformation Ch. 13: Reformations in Religion

2. Erasmus and Luther: 1500-1517 Erasmus Luther (1483-1546) “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched” Augustinian monk, taught at University of Wittenberg in Saxony • Combined humanism with Christianity (Platonist) • Printing press enabled him to be the first writer to make a living as such • Enchiridion: two versions of Christianity • Formal, ritualistic, “for show” • Spiritual, not concerned with “silly little ceremonies” • Novum Testamentum Omne: 3 translations in Latin and Greek – first time and made possible vernacular translations to follow

3. The Indulgences Controversy • Pope Leo X needed money for St. Peter’s Basilica • Practice of simony: selling church offices • Albrecht of Brandenburg, a pluralist (held multiple bishoprics) also needed money (debt) • Leo and Albrecht deal: Albrecht borrows money from Fuggers to get bishopric from Leo. Leo renews practice of indulgences to fund basilica. • Albrecht allows indulgence salesmen and proceeds split between pope and Fuggers • Indulgences: • Medieval theology: pray for friends & family here and now and in Heaven • Those that are in Purgatory or Hell because failed to repent? • Indulgences! Can reduce or remove sin (Tetzel)

4. Johann Tetzel, 1517 • Under papal authority, selling plenary indulgences in return for monetary “donations” • “When the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory springs!”

5. The 95 Theses • Luther wrote a private letter to Albrecht condemning indulgences, and included 95 theses raising concerns of Church practices, corruption, etc. • Letter printed and distributed: within a month all of Germany read and all of Europe by year’s end

6. Dispute to Divide: 1518-1521 • Growing secularism (emerging from Italian Renaissance and humanism) amongst European rulers prevented Luther from same fate as Hus and Wyclif • Luther took his message “on tour” and wrote 8 seminal essays between 1518-21 • Concilarism challenged supremacy of pope • Debate with Johann Eck, 1519 • Luther denied infallibility of pope and general council; only the Bible inerrant and only when interpreted by a true Christian • Church erred by executing Hus for heresy

7. Central Insights • Salvation through faith alone • Rejected “good works” • Bible was sole authority • Only sacraments of baptism and communion were valid • Rejected transubstantiation • Priesthood of believers • Not subject to pope or clergy’s interpretation of the Bible • Criticized indulgences and simony • Pits the power of the secular rulers with the “stolen” power of the clergy

8. Diet of Worms, 1521 • Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X via papal bull • HRE Charles V held tribunal and demanded Luther recant his writings; he refused, “Here I stand; I can do no other.”

9. Edict of Worms, 1521 • Luther outlawed as a heretic • Kidnapped by agents of Frederick the Wise (III) and protected in his castle • 1523: translated Bible into the vernacular and influencing development of modern German. • Democratized religion as any literate German could now read Scripture • People disputing faith and the Gospel with priests, monks, and doctors of divinity

10. The Spread of Protestantism Germany Denmark & Sweden • Northern German states, for political reasons, turned to Lutheranism • German princes could confiscate Church land and exercise own authority • Little spread beyond northern Germany and Scandinavia

11. Peasants’ War of 1524-25 (German Peasants’ Revolt) • Largest armed rebellion in Europe prior to the French Revolution • Peasants of southwest Germany, reading Luther’s NT rose up against landlords, taxation, and other feudal practices • Luther took middle ground: did not support uprising and violence, even though supported some of the demands • Both Catholic and Lutheran armies together ended uprising, killing upwards of 100,000 peasants

12. The Second Reformation (1525-1564) • HRE Charles V distracted by Turkish victories in eastern Europe led by Suleiman the Magnificent • Thus, allowed Lutherans to be Lutherans: Diet of Speyer (1526) permitted princely territories to decide religious matters on their own • Only lasted 3 years, when Charles V tried to re-Catholicize Germany. • League of Schmalkalden, 1531: Lutheran princes banded together for mutual defense • French King Henry II joined Lutherans to diminish Charles V power • Peace of Augsburg, 1555 • Princes in Germany could choose religion in region • Catholics or Protestants could move to appropriate state • Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany and affirmed independence of Germanic states until 1871

13. Spread of Protestantism Anabaptists Radical Anabaptists Led by John of Leyden, 1532 Instituted polygamy All books, except Bible, burned Began killing Lutherans and Catholics Tragedy at Munster, 1534: Joint army of Catholics and Lutherans surrounded city and burned radicals • Zurich, Switzerland 1525 • No allegiance to any state • Rejected secular contracts • No infant baptism as only adults could decide to commit to Christ • Believed the end of the world was near • Rejected Holy Trinity

14. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) Swiss Reformation • Humanist influenced by Erasmus • Adopted Lutheranism and established a theocracy in Zurich • Saw the Eucharist as only symbolic, not actual presence of Christ (Colloquy of Marburg 1529) • First major dispute preventing unified Protestant movement • Went further than Luther, “art had no biblical warrant and therefore could not be made Christian, and music, like art, distracted people’s attention from hearing the word of God.”

15. John Calvin (1509-1564) Calvinism Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) Foundational text Predestination: God is all-knowing and already knows who will achieve salvation “good works” not sufficient for salvation, but a sign that one has been chosen No free will God reveals chosen by a conversion experience The “elect” are church members who have had this and are model Christians “visible saints” • Most significant of new Protestant sects • Exiled Frenchman hiding in Geneva • Influenced by Erasmus • Established a theocracy in Geneva by 1540 • New center of Reformation • Home for Protestant exiles in England, Scotland, and France • Church and city should combine to enforce Christian behavior • Only committed Calvinists allowed in city

16. Calvinism • Most militant • Consistory: a judiciary of lay elders (presbyters) with the power to impose harsh penalties for not following God’s law • Drinking, singing (secular music), dancing, usury, and gambling • Protestant Work Ethic • Importance of hard work and financial success a sign of God’s approval Spread of Calvinism: • Presbyterians • Established in Scotland by John Knox 1560 • Dominant religion • Huguenots: French Calvinists brutally suppressed • Dutch Reformed Church • Set the stage for a revolt against the Inquisition under King Phillip II • Declared its independence in 1581 (recognized by 1648) • Puritans in England • Pressured Elizabeth I for reforms • Established colonies in America • Won English Civil War (1642-49)

17. The English Reformation Early reformers Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) Supported Catholicism and the Pope during the Reformation, hated Luther, and distrustful of ordinary people reading Bible in English Wrote Defense of Seven Sacraments, given title “Defender of the Faith” More autonomy in England than continent King appointed Bishops • John Wyclif • William Tyndale • A humanist • Translated Bible into English in 1526 • Basis for King James Version • Hunted and executed in 1536 after smuggling English Bibles to England • Refused to recognize Henry VIII leadership of Anglican Church

18. Anglican Church Church of England Pope Clement VII refused HRE Charles V sacked Rome 1527 1533: Thomas Cranmer replaced Cardinal Wolsey, convinced Henry to break away from Rome and divorce Catherine He had secretly married Anne in 1533 when she was 6 months pregnant with Elizabeth I • Henry sought annulment from Catherine of Aragon (HRE Charles V aunt) • Failure to produce male heir • Received papal dispensation to marry Catherine, now seeking annulment • Pope under control of Charles V • Hoping to marry Anne Boleyn

19. Henry VIII The Act of Supremacy, 1534 Act of Succession, 1534 All king’s subjects had to take an oath of loyalty to the king as the head of the Anglican Church Ordered execution of Thomas More for refusing this oath 1536: Pilgrimage of Grace: multiclass rebellion against Henry’s Reformation Anglican Church maintained most of the Catholic doctrines (7 sacraments, transubstantiation, celibacy for clergy) • Made King officially head of Church • Catholic lands confiscated (about 25% of all lands) • Doubled royal revenues • Nobles who bought land created enclosures • Closed monasteries Statute of the Six Articles, 1539

20. Tudor Succession Edward VI (r. 1547-1553) Mary Tudor (r. 1553-1558) Tried to impose Catholicism Married to Spanish heir, Phillip II – would put England under Spanish subjugation Rescinded reformation legislation Marian exiles: Protestants fled England fearing persecution 300 people executed including bishops and Archbishop Cranmer Called “Bloody Mary” • Henry’s only legitimate son by Jane Seymore (his 3rd wife) • 10 years old when took throne – strongly Protestant advisors • England adopts Calvinism during his reign • Clergy could marry • Iconic images removed from churches • Communion by laity expanded • New doctrines: • Salvation by faith • Denial of transubstantiation • 2 sacraments: baptism & communion • Premature death led to religious struggle

21. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) the “Virgin Queen” Elizabethan Settlement Thirty-Nine Articles, 1563 Defined creed of Anglican Church Vague enough to accommodate most people, except Puritans Catholics assassination attempts and invasions Hoping to place Mary Stuart (Queen of Scots) on throne Led to her execution in 1587 • Seen as illegitimate by Catholics • Protestant views • Politique: navigated compromise between Anglican and Protestantism • She and Parliament required conformity to Anglican Church, but people allowed to worship privately • Lutheran • Services in English • Clergy could marry • Everyone required to attend services or fined

22. Reformation and Women Protestant Women Catholic Women Opportunities in the Church Angela Merici (1474-1540) Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to provide education and religious training Approved by Paul III in 1544 Foundation for young girls within the Church; built and staffed schools and universities for women Provided Christian education to combat heresy Spread to France and New World Teresa de Avila (1515-1582) Spanish leader of the reform movement for monasteries and convents Preached direct relationship with God through prayer and contemplation • Luther: women caretakers • Calvin: subjugation of women to preserve moral order • Churches: more control over marriage than Catholic Church • Suppressed common law marriages • Marriage more about loving relationship between man and wife • Sex not just for procreation • Emphasis on reading the Bible led to increased literacy • Mothers taught children • Schools for girls • Lost opportunities for church service (nuns) • Lost property rights and ability to make legal transactions

23. Essay Topics • Analyze the causes of the Protestant Reformation • Compare and contrast the doctrines and practices of Lutheranism and Calvinism with Catholic doctrines and practices. • To what extent did Renaissance humanism result in the Reformation? • Compare and contrast the English Reformation on European politics and society in the 16th century. Be sure to consider Germany, England, France, and the Netherlands.