The Bright and Dark Sides of Leader Traits: A review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm

1. The Bright and Dark Sides of Leader Traits:A review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm Ronald F. Piccolo Rollins College

2. The Galapagos Finches

3. Darwin’s Finches →Fortune’s CEOs? • Physical Traits have evolved over time • Mutation and Adaptive Radiation select traits that are suitable for reproduction and survival • Beaks, Opposable Thumbs, Multicolored Feathers • Psychological Traits have a Genetic Source • These traits shape attitudes (job satisfaction) and behaviors (productive and deviant behaviors, life and work preferences, etc.) • Psychological Traits shape Leadership

4. Leadership is Universal

5. AGENDA • Reflection • Brief History of Leadership Trait Paradigm • Application • Antecedents of Traits • Evolutionary Psychology; Theory • Behavioral Genetics • Contradiction • Countervailing Effects of Traits • Speculation • Possible Explanations & Researchable Ideas

6. 1948 Stogdill (1948) Historical Review of Leadership Traits Intelligence Initiative Alertness Persistence Insight Self-confidence Sociability Responsibility Reflection

7. 1959 Historical Review of Leadership Traits Mann (1959) Intelligence Dominance Masculinity Extroversion Adjustment Conservatism

8. 1974 Historical Review of Leadership Traits Achievement Stogdill (1974) Responsibility Cooperativeness Persistence Insight Tolerance Self-Confidence Sociability

9. 1986 Historical Review of Leadership Traits Intelligence Lord(1986) Reconfirming Mann (1959) Dominance Masculinity

10. 1991 Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991) Historical Review of Leadership Traits Drive Confidence Motivation Cognitive Ability Integrity Task Knowledge Self-Confidence Sociability

11. The Leader Trait Paradigm Achievement Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence Drive Responsibility Initiative Dominance Dominance Confidence Cooperativeness Alertness Masculinity Masculinity Motivation Persistence Persistence Extroversion Cognitive Ability Insight Insight Adjustment Integrity Tolerance Self-confidence Conservatism Task Knowledge Self-Confidence Sociability Self-Confidence Sociability Responsibility Sociability

12. The ‘Big Five’ Personality Trait Taxonomy Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (Emotional Stability)

13. Heritability of Personality Plomin and Caspi (1999) 5 twin studies in 5 countries N=24,000 (Loehlin, 1992)

14. Human behavior is substantially shaped by evolutionary psychological adaptations

16. The ‘Big Five’ & Leadership Judge et al. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780. Judge et al. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.

17. Lower-Order Personality Traits & Leadership Judge et al. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780. Judge et al. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.

18. The ‘Big Five’ & Leadership Judge et al. (2002). Personality and Leadership: A Qualitative and Quantitative Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.

19. Traits & Leadership

20. Intelligence & Leadership Judge et al. (2004). Intelligence and Leadership: A Quantitative Review and Test of Theoretical Propositions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 542-552.

21. But of course there are skeptics… • “…the validity of personality inventories as predictors of job performance and other organizationally relevant criteria [are] generally low” (Murphy & Dziewezynski, 2005; p. 345). • “…the relationships (measured by correlations) are low. Personality has low explanatory and predictive power” (Andersen, 2006; p. 1088). • “…multiple correlations are inappropriate and [personality] validities remain so poor as to cast doubt on their utility” (Morgeson et al., 2007).

22. Persistent Criticisms • Emergence ≠ Effectiveness • Kaiser et al. (2008). “The Fate of Organizations” • “Not so Big” Five • Origins, Development Process, Translation • If Five is Good… • 10 is Better. 15? Better Still • Sources of Trait Development? Context? • Reasonable Alternatives? • Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory • Behavioral Approach/Inhibition System

23. Theoretical PerspectivesUnderlying the Leader Trait Paradigm Evolutionary Theory and Evolutionary Psychology Behavioral Genetics Application

24. Leadership as Characteristic Adaptation? • Leadership is a natural adaptive process to study because • Leadership exists as collective activity exists • Natural development of social structure tells us much about human universals and individual differences • “The right stuff” of leader traits may well depend on the context • Members follow leaders who are most likely to insure the group’s survival.

25. 21st Century Adaptive Radiation?

26. A Behavioral Genetics PrimerEnvironment vs. Genes • Consider studies of monozygotic (identical [MZ]) and dizygotic (fraternal [DZ]) twins reared apart and those reared together • For MZ/DZ twins reared together: a=additive genetic effect (broad heritability) c=common or shared environment effect, and e=error or unique similarity (or non-shared) environment effect rMZ = a2 + c2 {in MZ = variance in genes + environ} rDZ = (0.5  a2) + c2{DZ share half as many genes} 1 = a2 + c2 + e2 {variance = shared genes + shared environ + unique} Note: MZ twins=100% genetically similar (identical genes); DZ twins=50% genetically similar (share 50% genes)

27. Genes and Body Mass Index (BMI)

28. Genes and Obesity BMI=([weightlbs703]/heightin2) Correlation between pairs in terms of Body Mass Index (BMI) Source: Grilo, C. M., & Pogue-Geile, M. F. (1991). The nature of environmental influences on weight and obesity: A behavior genetics analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 520-537.

29. Behavioral GeneticsSummary: Variance in Body Mass Index Average sources of variability in BMI Interestingly, weight gain also shows high heritabilities so even change may be genetic

30. Behavioral Genetics: Studies of Exercise

31. Behavioral Genetics: Altruism • As measured by parents’ and teachers’ rating of degree to which child: • Volunteers to help others; Is willing to help someone who has been hurt; Shares treats with friends * When child was age 7. Source: Knafo & Plomin, Developmental Psychology, 2006.

32. Behavioral GeneticsDrug Use Source: Kendler et al. (2006) study of 1,386 Norwegian twin pairs.

33. Behavioral GeneticsSmoking

34. Behavioral GeneticsAggressive Antisocial Behavior • Aggressive antisocial behavior was rated by parents using items such as: • destroys one’s own and others’ belongings • fights with other children • attacks others • threatens others Sample: 1,480 pairs of Swedish twins Source: Eley, Lichtenstein, & Moffitt, Development & Psychopathology, 2003.

35. Behavioral GeneticsGenes, the Environment, and Leadership • Relative to differences in genes, differences in environment appear to play a minor role in variability in socially desirable (weight, exercise, altruism, etc.) and undesirable (drug use, criminality, infidelity) behaviors. • “Leaders are born” to the extent that identical twins reared apart shared strike similarities in terms of leader emergence. • Across various measures of leadership, studies show significant heritabilities, often in the 30-60% range (Arvey et al., 2006; Johnson et al., 2004)

36. Genes & the Environment • 50% of Personality is heritable • But that doesn’t mean 50% is environmental • Situational variables may themselves have a genetic source • Genes interact with the Environment • Genes do not exist independent of environment • Olson et al., 2001 (pp. 845-846): “Asking how much a particular individual’s attitudes or traits are due to heredity versus the environment is nonsensical, just like asking whether a leaky basement is caused more by the crack in the foundation or the water outside.” Contradiction

37. Trait Paradoxes: The Big Five Traits Sources: Judge & LePine (2007); Judge et al. (2009), “Bright and Dark Sides…”

38. Trait ParadoxesBeyond the Big Five Traits

39. Now what? • Psychological Traits reflect Adaptive Radiation – fitness, reproduction, survival • Traits have a Genetic Source – and are meaningful predictors of behavioral patterns including those associated with leadership emergence and effectiveness • The leader-trait paradigm: • Yields ‘low’ correlations • Offers little (no) integration of context • Offers little (no) description of trait development • Ignores possibility of trait paradoxes Speculation

40. Consider Trait Interactions Sample: 122 employees of regional health and fitness center. Performance was evaluated by two supervisors (ICC-1=.51) Source: Judge and Erez, Personnel Psychology, 2007.

41. Interpersonal Circumplex Extraversion Agreeableness Source: www.personalityresearch.org

42. Why Contradictions?Consider 2nd order estimates (i.e., variability) Source: Cavaretta et al., (working paper)

43. TFL x LMX → JCT However, at ‘extremely’ low values of LMX (mx< 1.9; 9%), relationship b/w TFL & JCT <0. Source: Piccolo and Colquitt (2006)

44. Concluding Thoughts • Leader Trait Paradigm • Sources of Trait Development • Evolution & Behavioral Genetics • Trait Paradoxes • Variability • Construct Drift • Context Thank You!

45. Characteristic AdaptationsLeadership Emergence and Effectiveness Subjective Effectiveness Rated effectiveness Follower attitudes Moderators Traits ILTs Traits Big Five Core self-evaluations Other traits Adaptive processes Getting along Getting ahead Providing meaning Leader Emergence Perceived Leadership Leader ascendance Leader ascendance Moderators Threats Resources Objective Effectiveness Unit performance Unit survival ILTs=Implicit Leadership Theories Based on Judge et al., Leadership Quarterly, 2009.