Politics: The two faces of Janus

1. Politics: The two faces of Janus Instead of a definition

2. What is politics? • Display of egoism and will of some people to assert themselves at the expense of others?

3. Display of sociability or the desire to co-operate, enter into reciprocal relations of good-will and friendship--even subordinate themselves?

4. Is politics dirty business, a noble art, or both? how can it be both?

5. Why we denigrate "politicians" yet honor "statesmen" who are also politicians?

6. Politics as what goes on in the state

7. Politics as the state: Closely related • Western tradition from Athenian Polis to Roman Republic to Roman Empire through universal empire and universal church; through the Renaissance cities claiming inheritance of ancient world; to emergence of modern states in period of Reformation.

8. Refers to institution claiming political and juridical supremacy

9. Inadequacies of state-bound conception of politics • New states do not fit Western pattern—state institutions do not capture politics.

10. Politics outside of state structures in Western countries as well.

11. Private organizations integrated into politics of state.

12. Similarity of politics in state and other organizations

13. New states don't fit Western pattern • Western states grew from within by mutations of continuous tradition. • Forms of Western state in new states either imposed from outside or chosen by act of will.

14. Imperfect match between political and social institutions • Politics understandable in relation to pre-existing social structures (e.g. tribes in Africa, castes in India, Islam in all Muslim countries • Attempt atmunderstanding in terms of Western-style institutions (political parties, elections, parliaments, courts, etc. go astray. • New states—incomprehensible without society.

15. Politics outside formal state structures • Inadequacy formal institutions of state in West also--state only the visible part of the iceberg of politics. • Transformation of relations between state and society blurs boundary between what is and is not government.

16. Boundaries between state & society? • Soviet-type regimes: Where are boundaries between state, party, industry, social organizations? • Liberal democracies: Also unclear boundaries today

17. Private organizations and government • Size and strategic positions of giant corporations, conglomerates, labor unions, etc. make them important participants in political processes. • Until 20th century, all organizations small in comparison to big business and big organizations today .

18. Private organizations and government • Brought officially into decision-making-- "private organizations"--in modern state work hand in hand with lawmakers, administrators, and regulators • Large private organizations govern people, and politics within such organizations similar to politics within formal government--decisions made which are binding

19. Similarity of politics in state and other organizations • How do politics state industries differ from politics of industry in general. How do politics of state education differ from politics of education generally? • Boundaries between private and public sectors blurred in modern society. • Political scientists have come to realize study of state and its politics insufficient to understanding politics. • Need to study administration of large organizations, politics outside government of state

20. Monopoly of jurists on study of state broken • 19th century study of state was juridical-- concerned with legal sovereignty and constitutional forms • By early 20th century, modern sociology, social psychology, and social anthropology and economics had begun to deal with study of state, breaking monopoly of jurists on study of state • Some aspects of state more interesting to other social scientists than to political scientists

21. State and politics--summary • Politics in terms of state makes some sense • Long tradition--probably most commonly accepted definition • Yet, evolution of both state and study of politics show glaring inadequacies in defining politics as what goes on in the state.

22. Politics as power, authority, influence, and conflict

23. Morganthau: Politics as power struggle • International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power. Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate aim..."

24. Morgenthau: Definition of power • Power means "man's control over the minds and actions of other men. By political power we refer to the mutual relations of control among the holders of public authority and between the latter and the people at large.” Politics among Nations

25. Schattschneider: politics as socialization of conflict • Modern government is a power system, the agent of the political community, that competes with other power systems both domestic and foreign. … [Government] "is the only device we have that is able to protect us against other power systems of which we do not approve wholly, power systems that we cannot control, or power systems that we fear.“ The Semisovereign People (1958)

26. Lasswell: Politics as “who gets what when how? • Defines politics as "the study of influence and the influential" Politics: Who Gets What, When, How?

27. V.O. Key Jr.: politics as superordination and subordination • Politics "consists fundamentally of relationships of superordination and subordination; of dominance and submission, of the governors and the governed" Politics, parties and Pressure Groups, 5th edition, p. 2-3

28. Weber: Distribution of power • Politics means "striving to influence the distribution of power, either among states or among groups within a state" “Politics as a Vocation" in From Max Weber

29. Advantages of defining politics in terms of power, authority, influence, and conflict

30. Allows consideration of activities outside state • Struggles for control of organizations or strikes and demonstrations not directed at government. • Something missing if such activities seen as non-political?

31. Possible to study and compare politics of government with politics outside government • Is there enough difference to warrant considering politics of the state as unique and distinct?

32. Overcomes difficulties understanding politics of the new states • Solves problem of blurring line between government and society

33. What is wrong with politics as power? • Cooperation: contracts, administration? • If interest is in funding the best, the most sensible solution, and then educating as mobilizing people.

34. Bias of system: Negative face of power • Interests which don't become object of power struggle because system is biased against their even being debated?

35. Discontented faculty member at an academic institution headed by tradition-bound President. • Annoyed by a long-standing policy around which a strong vested interest has developed--decides to launch an attack on the policy at the next faculty meeting.

36. At meeting, when moment of truth arrives, he sits in frozen silence. Why? • Afraid attack on policy might be interpreted as expression of disloyalty to university or President? • Decided that given the beliefs of his colleagues, he would certainly constitute a minority of one, so why go through hassle?

37. Concluded that given the nature of the lawmaking process in the institution, his proposed remedies would be pigeonholed permanently • Professor's view never became object of power struggle--did not attempt to impose his will on others and was not defeated in test of will • Appears to have been prevented from making his proposal by "the system"

38. Examples of systematic bias • Bias preventing conflict from arising • French Canadians, Blacks in US, women, etc. • Patterns of discrimination not outcomes of power struggles

39. Non-decision-making • Attitude patterns preventing power struggles from taking place • "negative face of power" or politics of non-decision-making

40. Definition better, but still problems • Including patterns of rule and authority yields more adequate definition • Yet, still does not capture essence of politics

41. Politics: two-faced god, janus(duverger)

42. Ambivalence: Two views of politics • Oscillation between two dramatically opposed views of the nature of politics: both share power as common denominator

43. Conflict, struggle--power allows those who possess it to keep hold on society and to profit

44. Effort to bring about rule of order and justice: power guarantees general interest and common good against pressure of private interests

45. Politics serves to maintain privileges of minority against majority • Politics as means of integrating all citizens into the community and of creating the just state • Contradictory views everywhere: politicians are corrupt and crooked, yet we think of them as our great leaders and we respect the laws they pass

46. Real nature of politics: always ambivalent • Statue of Janus, 2-faced God true image of state and all organized power in any society • Always both instrument by which certain groups dominate others---used in the interests of the rulers to the disadvantage of the ruled, but also means of ensuring social order and achieving some integration of the individual into the collectivity for the general good

47. No democracy exists in which politics doesn't involve at least some domination • Oppressive and unjust governments fulfill some functions in general interest

48. These two faces of politics always coexist, although importance of each varies with the period, the circumstances, and the country concerned