6. Cultural Variability

6. Cultural Variability Theories of International Tourism

0. Objectives After completing this chapter you should be able to: • Understand major sources of cultural differences • Understand the concept of value system and values orientation • Identify different types and measurements of values • Describe major value dimensions • Identity major cultural differences in values among international communities Theories of International tourism

Introduction Cultural differences influence human behavior. Cultural values predict human behavior. Cultures differ along major value dimensions which provide ways to understand how people behave and communicate across different cultures, how they develop social relationships and what perceptions they develop of others. Theories of International tourism

1. Sources of cultural differences Various cultures perceive values, perceptions, attitudes, stereotypes, beliefs, categorizations, evaluations, expectations, memories, and opinions in different ways. Those who are of a similar culture perceive these elements in the same way. On the other hand, those who belong to different culture perceive these elements in different ways. They perceive things differently and behave differently. Theories of International tourism

1. Sources of cultural differences 1) Cultural differences in communication Cultures differ in the way they communicate: • Different patterns of verbal communication (language and paralanguage; intonation, laughing, crying, questioning), • Different patterns of non-verbal communication (body language, such as facial expressions, head movements, gestures, use of space, use of physical distance between people) Theories of International tourism

1. Sources of cultural differences 2) Cultural differences in social categories -social categories: social role, attitudes towards people etc. 3) Cultural differences in rules of social behavior -ways of defining and attributing importance to social relations, ways of establishing and maintaining social relations etc. Theories of International tourism

2. Culture values 1) Concept and definitions The values that permeate a culture are called cultural values, and they inform about what is good and bad, right and wrong, true or false, positive or negative, and the like. Values are principles that define life situations, selection, and decision-making, and create social order. Values are individual attributes that can affect people’s attitudes, perceptions, needs, and motivations. Theories of International tourism

2. Culture values 2) Culture and values Values are the core of culture and depend on culture. Culture is rooted in values. Values are psychological variables that characterize people within the same culture. Differences in values indicate differences among cultures, such as differences in thinking, acting, perceiving, understanding of attitudes, motivations, and human needs. 3) Value system A value system is an organization of beliefs concerning preferable ways of behavior or end-states of existence along a continuum of their relative importance. Changes in values affect people’s thoughts, beliefs, and actions. Theories of International tourism

2. Culture values 4) Value orientation value orientation refers to “complex but…patterned-rank ordered principles…which give…direction to the …human acts …the solution of common human problems”. 5) Types of values (1) Instrumental values are preferable modes or means of behavior. (2) Terminal values are goals(salvation, world peace, freedom, comfortable life, true friendship). Ambitious(hard working, aspiring)  A comfortable life (a prosperous life) Theories of International tourism

2. Culture values 6) Classification of values Primary values are what is worth the sacrifice of human life, or worth dying for(freedom). Secondary values are not strong enough for the sacrifice of human life(fair opportunity). Tertiary values are at the bottom of the value hierarchy(hospitality). 7) Measurement and analysis of values Allport-Vernon-Lindzey’s (AVL) Test Rokeach Value Survey(RVS) Each measuring method (direct/indirect, surveys, ranking/rating) has its own advantage and disadvantages. Theories of International tourism

2. Culture values 8) Value studies in tourism Shih(1986): Values, Attitudes, and Lifestyle (VALS) technique Pitts & Woodside(1986): ‘a value profile’ of each group Pizam & Calantone(1987): a value scale related to tourist attraction Muller(1991): different segments of American tourists Madgrigal & Kahle(1994): differences in vacation activity preference 9) Cultural value dimension The different cultural value dimensions indicate how the major cultural differences may influence the social relations between international culturally different tourists and hosts. Theories of International tourism

2-9 Cultural value dimension Theories of International tourism

6. Cultural Variability