Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence

1. Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence 34

2. Figure 34.1 As this photograph of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi strikingly reveals, she reveled in direct contact with the ordinary people of India. Seeing herself as the champion of the poor and defenseless, she refused to be isolated by the phalanxes of bodyguards commonly associated with national leaders across the globe.

3. Chapter Overview • The Challenges of Independence • Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies

4. TIMELINE 1910 C.E. to 1950 C.E.

5. TIMELINE 1960 C.E. to 1990 C.E.

6. Map 34.1 The Emergence of New Nations in Africa after World War IIA comparison of this map with Map 29.4 on page 673 quickly reveals the pronounced overlap between the boundaries drawn by the European imperialist powers and the postcolonial nations that emerged after 1945.

7. Map 34.2 The Partition of South Asia: The Formation of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri LankaReligious fault lines largely explain the fragmentation of the South Asian empire that the British had forged in the 18th and early 19th centuries.

8. The Challenges of Independence • Bangladesh, 1972 • Formerly East Pakistan • The Population Bomb • New World foods • Population control difficult • Cultural factors • Lineage • High mortality rates before 20th century • Birth rate necessary

9. Figure 34.2 Since independence, famine has stalked much of the formerly colonized world, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. Often, as in the case of these young refugees from the Nigerian civil war photographed in the late 1960s, starvation has been caused by human conflicts rather than natural disasters.

10. The Challenges of Independence • Parasitic Cities and Endangered Ecosystems • Towns • Slums • Become permanent • Parasitic

11. Figure 34.3 This graph shows the growth of the world population by major global geographic areas between 1930 and 2000. It illustrates the near-stabilization of the upswing in populations of the West and the states of the former Soviet Union that began with industrialization in the 18th century. It charts the explosion that occurred in recent decades in the areas of the globe that were colonized, both formally and informally, by the industrial powers in the 19th and early 20th centuries. These increases surpass those of any other epoch in human history.

12. Figure 34.4 In the urban areas of undeveloped nations, the contrast between the wealth of the few and the poverty of the majority is revealed by the juxtaposition of the high-rise apartments of the affluent middle classes and the shantytowns of the urban poor. The city centers in emerging nations are much like those of the industrial West or Japan. But the cities as a whole often are more like collections of large villages than integrated urban units. Many of these villages are vast shantytowns with varying levels of basic services such as running water, sewer systems, and transportation networks to the city center.

13. The Challenges of Independence • The Subordination of Women and the Nature of Feminist Struggles in the Postcolonial Era • Some rulers • Indira Gandhi • Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter • Corazon Aquino • Benazir Bhutto • Rights eroded by religious revivalism

14. The Challenges of Independence • Neocolonialism, Cold War Rivalries, and Stunted Development • Industrial development • Little success • Primary products • Cash crops, minerals • Dependent on prices • Neocolonial economy

15. Artificial Nations and the Rising Tide of Communal Strife • Precolonial struggle • Internal diversity • Western colonial imposition • Arbitrary division of Africa and Asia • Selective recruiting • Nations suffer to unite • Pakistan, civil war in early 1970s • Africa, less common historical basis • Democracy as victim

16. Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • Charismatic Populists and One-Party Rule • Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana • Soviet support • Cocoa, cash crop • Deposed, 1966

17. Map 34.3 The New West African NationsGhana was one of many ethnically fragmented, new African states that came to be dominated by charismatic leaders and then military dictatorships in the cold war era.

18. Figure 34.5 Many monumental statues of Kwame Nkrumah, such as this one, rose in the towns and villages of Ghana as he tried to cover the failure of his socialist-inspired development programs with dictatorial rule and self-glorification. Although Nkrumah's efforts to cover his regime's failures through self-glorifying displays and pageantry were extreme, they were not unique. The many images of the "great leader" of the moment that one finds in many developing nations are a variation on Nkrumah's tactics. These state campaigns to glorify the dictatorial figures are reminiscent of those mounted by the leaders of the communist revolutions in Russia, China, and Cuba.

19. Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions • Free Officers, 1930s • Gamal Abdul Nasser • Nationalistic • Allied with Muslim Brotherhood • Hasan al-Banna

20. Figure 34.6 After the Free Officers seized power in the 1952 coup, a young general named Nasser emerged as the most charismatic and able of a number of rivals for power. Here cheering crowds climb toward a balcony where the new leader of Egypt has been addressing them, and Nasser is embraced by one enthusiastic supporter.

21. Figure 34.7 Hasan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood, an opposition group in Egypt that established medical clinics and promoted unions, land reform, and women's education.

22. Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions • Nasser • Land redistribution • Free education • Food staples regulated • Forced British from Canal zone • Israel • Six-Day War, 1967

23. Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions • Anwar Sadat • Negotiations with Israel • Hosni Mubarak

24. Map 34.4 The Middle East in the Cold War EraAs in Africa and over much of Asia, the new states of the Middle East were very often based on the colonies established by the different European powers in the age of high imperialism.

25. Figure 34.8 Growing Egyptian resistance to the British occupation of the Suez Canal zone was expressed in this effigy of a British soldier that was strung up on a Cairo street corner in January 1952. The Arabic banner that accompanies the mock hanging reminds Egyptians of the Dinshawai incident, discussed in Chapter 33, and the need to sustain resistance to British domination. Within months of this protest, mass demonstrations and a military coup freed the Egyptian people from both the British occupation and the repressive khedival regime.

26. Postcolonial Options for Achieving Economic Growth and Social Justice • The Indian Alternative: Development for Some of the People • Indian National Congress • Social reform • Economic development • Democracy • Civil rights • Jawaharlal Nehru • Green Revolution • Private investment

27. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies • Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West • Pahlavi shahs • Modernization • Alienates religious leaders • Overthrown by Khomeini, 1978 • Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • Similar to Mahdi

28. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies • Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West • Radical reform • Sharia law • Opposition suppressed • Women more restricted • War with Iraq • 1988, peace

29. Figure 34.9 Women played a vital role in the mass demonstrations that toppled the shah of Iran and brought Ayatollah Khomeini to power in 1979. In many ways women's support for political movements in the postcolonial period was a continuation of their active participation in earlier struggles against European colonial domination. But increasingly in the postcolonial era, women have organized not only to promote political change, but to force social and economic reforms intended to improve the quality of their own lives as women.

30. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies • South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise • Nationalist Party • Afrikaner • 1948 elections • Afrikaner rule • Independence, 1960

31. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies • South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise • Apartheid • Complete separation • Homelands • African National Congress outlawed • Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko

32. Delayed Revolutions: Religious Revivalism and Liberation Movements in Settler Societies • South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise • Opposition, 1960s • Economic, political pressure, 1980s • F.W. DeKlerk • Mandela freed, 1990 • Elections, 1994 • Mandela president

33. Figure 34.10 This photograph of a long line of newly enfranchised citizens waiting to vote in South Africa provides a striking contrast with the decreasing participation in elections in the United States and other older democracies in the West. For the first time, the Bantu-speaking peoples, coloreds, and Indians who make up the vast majority of South Africa's population were allowed to vote in free elections. Their determination to exercise their hard-won right to vote was demonstrated by the peoples' willingness to wait, often in stifling heat, for many hours in the long lines that stretched from polling stations throughout the country.