Organizational Communication

Organizational Communication Dr. John Morrison

Chapter 1 The Challenge of Organization Communication

Defined • Organization: • Social collective (group) • Coordinated activities • Structure • Organizational environment • Communication • Continuous process • Transactional • Symbolic

Communication • “Continuous, transactional process involving participants who occupy different but overlapping environments and create relationships through the exchange of messages, which are affected by external, psychological and physiological noise”

We Examine: • Foundational approaches: • Classical, human relations, human resources • These are prescriptive • How organizations should run • Not descriptive: how they do run • Not explanatory: what makes them work (or not) • Based in other disciplines (sociology, psychology, management, economics, etc.) • Didn’t originally consider communication

We Also Examine: • Contemporary approaches: • Systems, cultural, critical approaches • These include description, prescription, explanation, and critique • We examine organizational processes • Assimilation, decision-making, conflict management, change and leadership, emotion, diversity, technology and more

Organizational Communication • How does the organization affect the communication process? • How does the communication process affect the organization? • How does your organization react (poor) or anticipate (better) to important national and international issues? • Globalization and outsourcing • Terrorism • Climate change issues • Changing demographics and social initiatives

Chapter 2 Classical Approaches

Classical Approaches • Machine metaphor • Specialization • Standardization • Replaceability • Predictability • Like a machine, if an organization is not functioning properly… • Some rule or standard has been misapplied

Henry Fayol (1841-1925)Classical Organization • Father of Modern Operational-Management Theory • Elements of Management: • Planning: best way to achieve goals • Organizing: arrangement/evaluation of human resources • Command: task assignment • Coordination: the blending of the various organizational parts into a cohesive whole • Control: comparing goals to activities and adjusting

Henry Fayol • Principles of Management • Organizational structure: • Scalar chain: vertical hierarchy of communication and command • Unity of command: individual employee should receive orders from a single supervisor • Unity of direction: activities with similar goals require same supervisor • Division of labor: limited, specialized tasks • Order: specific place for each task and employee • Span of control: each supervisor should have a limited number of employees

Henry Fayol • Principles of Organizational Power • Centralization of management and decision-making • Authority and responsibility: power from the position and personal characteristics • Discipline: all members should be obedient

Henry Fayol • Principles of Organizational Reward • Remuneration of Personnel • Appropriate salary and benefits (primary motivation) • Equity: treat all justly • Tenure stability: employees require guaranteed job time to achieve maximum productivity and maintain loyalty (although too much is counterproductive)

Henry Fayol • Principles of Organizational Attitude • Subordination of individual interests to general interests • Organizational goals must come first • Initiative: supervisors should value and direct employee efforts in support of the organization • Esprit de corps: no dissension in the ranks

Henry Fayol (summary) • Elements of Fayol’s classical organization: • Highly structured • Hierarchical • Functional divisions • Vertical communication only • Except for limited horizontal (Fayol’s Bridge) for those at the same level • Prescriptive

Max Weber’s (1864-1920) Theory of Bureaucracy • Six features of the “ideal” organization • Three features similar to Fayol: • Clearly defined hierarchy • Division of labor • Centralization of decision-making • Three features unique to Weber • Bureaucracies should be closed systems • Ignore outside influences (like a machine) • Importance of codified rules • Rule for every possible contingency • Functioning of authority • Three types

Weber • Three types of authority: • Traditional (legitimate) • Based on the title/position • Charismatic • Based on personality, communication • Unstable • Rational-legal (must dominate) • Expertise/rationality/norms/rules • Basis of bureaucratic functioning • Impersonal

Weber • In sum: • Similar to Fayol, but he describes an “ideal” organization as a closed system with focus on rationality as the driving force • Individuality is discouraged • Highly impersonal • Dominate through knowledge

Groupthink Groupthink When group cohesiveness rises to the point where consensus becomes/replaces the group’s goal(s)

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) • Like Fayol (prescriptive), but concerned with the micro-level of organizational functioning • Emphasis on relationship between manager and employee and control of the individual worker, not organizational structure • Developed the Theory of Scientific Management

Taylor’s Theory of Scientific Management • Taylor rejected: • Apprenticeship as the primary training method • Unreliable • Led to uneven work • Piecework as the typical reward system • Salary based on quantity of work • Led to “rate busters,” which reduced pay per piece • Motivation was to keep productivity low, so rates would stay high (systematic soldiering)

Taylor’s Tenets • One best way to do every job • Time and motion studies • E.g. 21 ½ lb. shovel • Piece work could be adapted to results • Proper selection of employee to task • No suitable task: fire the worker • Reduces systematic soldiering (breaks the groups) • Training determined by “best way” studies • Inherent differences between management and workers • Strict division of labor

Communication in “the Machine” • Content: mostly task • Innovation? • Direction: mostly vertical and downward • Advantages/disadvantages? • Is horizontal needed? When? • Mode: mostly written • Advantages/disadvantages? • Style: mostly formal • Titles, standardized terms, attire, environment

Classical Management • Fast food example • Other examples? • When might classical management be the most appropriate choice? • Least appropriate?

Chapter 3a Human Relations Theories

David McClelland : Achievement Motivation • Achievement is a distinct human motive/need • Some have a high need, some a low need • Set high, but attainable goals • “Peg throwing” example • Like the “overload principle” • Avoid very low risk and very high risk • Achievement trumps rewards • Greater concern for performance feedback than for affective feedback • “How am I doing?” versus “do you like me?”

Human Relations Approach • Hawthorne Effect • From the Hawthorne Studies (1924-32) • Effects of lighting, temperature, breaks, hours, incentives, and other changes on productivity • Mayo’s work at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant • Did it work? • What are the conclusions? • Social and emotional needs are more important • Are the findings valid?

Hawthorne Studies • So, why are the Hawthorne studies important? • They began the study of social variables on organizational functioning • Role of informal and group communication became something to consider

Human Relations Theories • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) • Self-transcendence: introduced late in his life • Level 5: Self Actualization: self expression and personal growth, need to fulfill one’s potential • Level 4: Esteem: rewarding work (internal) and bonus compensation and public recognition (external) • Level 3: Affiliation: social relationships and needs • Level 2: Safety: , shelter, safe working conditions, etc. • Level 1: Physiological: wages (food, clothes, etc.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • General theory of motivation • Hierarchy of prepotency • Limited empirical support (but some) • Examples in the college environment?

Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory • AKA the “Two-Factor Theory” • The causes of organizational satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate • i.e. dissatisfaction is not the opposite of satisfaction • Motivation factors: • Variables related to satisfaction • Hygiene factors: • Variables related to dissatisfaction

Motivation Factors • Motivators: • Challenging work, recognition, achievement, responsibility, opportunities for personal growth, etc. • Presence or absence does not affect dissatisfaction, but satisfaction level is dependent on them • Inherent parameters of the specific job • Like Maslow’s high levels

Hygiene factors • Hygiene factors • Status, job security, salary, supervisory methods and policies, benefits and wages, etc. • Presence or absence does not affect satisfaction, but dissatisfaction results from their absence • External to the specific job • Like Maslow’s lower levels • Empirical support for theory is minimal • Except that recognition and achievement are motivating

Dealing with Deviant Members • Not all deviant behaviors have negative effects. When unmanageable: • Accept: live with it. (not the same as approval) • When member’s positives outweigh the negatives • When deviation isn’t critical to success • Confront: • Attention to behavior may alleviate the situation • Exclude: last resort only • Ignore, exclude, reject, remove • Consider assigning solo or unimportant tasks

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y • Theory (1960) of two distinct attitudes toward organizational motivation and functioning • Theory X: the average worker is lazy, lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility, is selfish, gullible, and not intelligent • McGregor asserts these preconceptions are incorrect. He suggests a different set of managerial assumptions called Theory Y

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory • Theory Y • Work is a natural desire • Workers are generally self-disciplined, so harsh control is not needed • Workers seek opportunities to enhance self-actualization, which is in harmony with fulfillment of organizational goals • Workers enjoy responsibility • Workers employ imagination and creativity in solving organizational challenges

Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Behavior • FIRO: Fundamental Interpersonal Relationship Orientation • We join groups to fulfill needs: • Inclusion: need to belong • Control: need to feel influential • Affection: need to feel that others like us

Communication in “the Machine” • Content: task and maintenance communication • Communication that maintains relationships • Direction: vertical and horizontal • Advantages/disadvantages? • Mode: focus on face-to-face • Channels with high social presence, less reliance on written • Advantages/disadvantages? • Style: relatively informal • Less reliance on titles, more conversational language, less formal attire, less sterile environment

Expectancy Violations Theory JudeeBurgoon

Expectancy Violations Theory • Personal space is governed by our cultural norms and individual preferences. • “Proxemics” • Sometimes, it’s effective to break the rules regarding space and other nonverbal behavior • Facial expressions, eye contact, touch, posture etc.

Expectancy Violations Theory • Practical: • If we are likely to be viewed as “rewarding,” consider minor deviations from nonverbal expectations • If we are likely to be viewed as nonrewarding, do not deviate from nonverbal expectations • However, accurate diagnosis is difficult

Chapter 3b Human Resources

Human Resources • Continuation of classical and human relations approaches • In addition, it recognizes the potential value of the ideas and unique contributions of organizational members • More than just physical labor (classical) • More than just physical labor and feelings (human relations)

Human Resources • No single significant event triggered the movement • General dissatisfaction with existing models • Distrust of human relations applications • Lack of empirical support for human relations

Human Resources • Human Relations movement suggests: • Work factors ---- satisfaction of higher order needs ---- job satisfaction ----- productivity • However, no empirical support for the connection between satisfaction and productivity • Does “being satisfied” at work result in increased productivity?

Gestalt • More meaning exists than the parts alone can account for • Example • Groups can (but not necessarily do) have unique qualities not present or knowable via analysis of the members

Human Resources • Human Relations approach examples: • Give people a voice to satisfy needs • Assign titles to individuals to satisfy needs • Reward individuals to satisfy needs • Human Resources approach examples: • Give them a voice because they often have valuable information and ideas • Assign increasing responsibility based on performance and initiative • Reward those that excel

Human Resources • Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid (Leadership Grid) • Tool for training leadership styles to enhance efficiency , employee satisfaction, creativity • Balancing two dimensions: concern for people, concern for production

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Human Resources • Ouchi’s Theory Z • Based on Japanese management principles and assumptions • Long-term employment • Slow evaluation and promotion • Nonspecialized career paths • Implicit control • Collective decision-making and responsibility • Holistic concern • While impractical to fully implement, he suggests partial integration of these characteristics

Organizational Communication