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Animal Physiology and Energy Dynamics

Explore the anatomy, physiology, and bioenergetics of animals and how they maintain homeostasis through feedback mechanisms. Learn about tissue types, organ systems, energy sources, and metabolic rates.

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Animal Physiology and Energy Dynamics

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  1. Chapter 40: Animal Form and Function

  2. Essential Knowledge • 2.a.1 – All living systems require constant input of free energy. • 2.c.1 – Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and respond to external environmental changes. • 2.c.2 – Organisms respond to changes in their external environments. • 4.b.2 – Cooperative interaction within organisms promote efficiency in the use of energy and matter.

  3. Introduction • Anatomy – • The study of structure of organism • Physiology – • The study of the functions of an organism’s anatomical features • Bioenergetics – • How organisms obtain, process and use their energy resources

  4. Constraints • Limits to animal shape and size - • 1) Physical laws • Physics of flight • Gravity • Laws of hydrodynamics • 2) Environment • Aqueous requirement for cellular medium • Plasma membrane, surface area to volume ratios • Hierarchy of living organisms • Climate/Weather

  5. Organizational Levels • Illustrate emergent properties • Cell – Basic unit of life • Tissue –Group of cells with same function • Organ – Group of tissues with same function • Organ system – Group of organs with same function • Individual – All organ systems working together

  6. Tissue • Four Major Types: • Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous • Epithelial • Tightly packed cells (very little space in b/t) • Cover outside of body • Line organs and cavities • Function: barrier against injury, microbes and fluid loss • Classified by: # of layers, shape • # of layers – simple and stratified • Shape – cuboidal, columnar, squamous

  7. Tissue, cont. • Connective • Function: bind and support other tissue types • NOT tightly packed • Three kinds of protein fibers: • Collagenous • Elastic • Reticular • Major types of connective tissue: • Loose, adipose, fibrous, cartilage, bone and blood

  8. Tissue, cont. • Muscle • Long cells capable of contracting • Consumes most of cellular energy work • Stimulated by nerve cells • Made of proteins called actin and myosin • Most abundant tissue in animals • Three types: • Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

  9. Tissue, cont. • Nervous • Sense stimuli and transmits signals • Functional unit: • Nerve cell (neuron) • Specialized to transmit nerve impulses • Concentrated in brain (anterior end) • Remember? Called cephalization

  10. Organs and organ systems • Systems: • Digestive • Circulatory • Respiratory • Immune/lymphatic • Excretory • Endocrine • Reproductive • Nervous • Integumentary • Skeletal • Muscular

  11. Energy • Two ways to obtain energy: • Heterotroph • Autotroph • Bioenergetics: • The flow of energy through an animal • Limits animal’s behavior, growth, repair, regulation and reproduction • Determines how much food an animal must consume

  12. Energy sources • Animals are heterotrophs • Obtain energy through enzymatic hydrolysis (aka – Cellular Rs) • Use food, oxygen to make energy molecules and carbon dioxide (waste product) • Most of energy molecules are made into ATP • Production and use of ATP generates heat • Animal continuously gives off heat • This release of heat helps to regulate internal body temp

  13. Metabolic rate • Def – amount of energy animal uses in a given amount of time • Measured in calories (C) • Can be determined: • Monitoring an animal’s rate of heat loss using a calorimeter • Measuring oxygen consumption • Can use an EKG or heart monitor to measure • Measuring carbon dioxide output

  14. Influences on Metabolic Rate • 1) Size • Amt of energy to maintain each gram of weight is inversely related to size • Small animals = MORE energy per gram of weight • 2) Activity • More activity = more energy needed • 3) Others • Size, sex, age, body/environmental temps

  15. Homeostasis • Def - How an animal maintains stable internal environmental conditions • Such as: temp, heart rate, metabolism • “Steady state” • Two schools/groups of animals: • Regulators • Conformers

  16. Regulators and Conformers • Regulators – use internal control mechanisms to moderate internal changes (despite external fluctuations) • Ex: freshwater and saltwater fish • Conformers –allow their internal environment to vary with external fluctuations • Ex: lizards • No organism is SOLELY one or another • Animals maintain homeostasis while being BOTH a regulator AND conformer

  17. Homestatic mechanisms • Three functional control mechanisms: • 1) Receptor • Detects change • 2) Control center/Integrator • Processes change and sends response to effector • 3) Effector • Changes internal conditions • Ex: a house thermostat

  18. Positive and Negative Feedback • Positive and Negative Feedback Loops

  19. Thermoregulation • Def - The process by which animals maintain an internal body temperature • Most biological body processes are VERY sensitive to changes in body temp • Two strategies: • Endotherm • Ectotherm

  20. Endotherm • Animals that internally control body temp • Ex: • Mammals, birds, few reptiles, some fish, most insect species • High metabolic rate • Maintain high and very stable internal temp • Ex: Humans – 98.6o F • Source of heat: metabolic heat (ATP)

  21. Endotherm, cont. • Advantages: • Can perform rigorous activities for longer periods of time • Elaborate circulatory systems (division of blood) • Elaborate respiratory system (oxygen exchange) • Maintain stable body temp • Disadvantages: • Very “expensive” in energy use • High metabolic rate • Need to consume much more food than ectotherm

  22. Ecototherm • Animals who gain most of heat from environment • Ex: • Reptiles, amphibians, most invertebrates, fishes • Low metabolic rate • Regulate body temp by behavioral mechanisms • Hibernation • Basking in sun • Shade seeking

  23. Modes of Heat Exchange • Ectotherms and endotherms exchange heat using the same processes • Four processes to do so: • Radiation • Evaporation • Convection • Conduction

  24. Balance of Heat Exchange • Ultimate goal: • To balance heat loss with heat gain • Five adaptations help animals to meet this goal: • 1) Insulation • 2) Circulatory Adaptations • 3) Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss • 4) Behavioral Responses • 5) Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

  25. Energy Conservation • Animals often times encounter periods of time that challenge their heat balancing abilities • Ex: extreme temps; food is scarce • Torpor – a physiological state in which animal activity is low and metabolism decreases • Enables animals to save energy while avoiding dangerous conditions

  26. Energy Conservation, cont. • Hibernation: • Long-term torpor • Adaptation to winter temp and lack of food • Vertebrate endotherms hibernate • Body temps decline • Saves energy and metabolic rate drops • Triggered by shorter days (less daylight) and slight temperature decreases • Ex: bears, ground squirrels Other animals hibernating Bear Hibernating (1:00)

  27. Energy Conservation, cont. • Estivation: • Summer torpor • Adaptation to long periods of high temps and scarce water supply • Slow metabolism and inactivity • Triggered by long days • Ex: frogs, snails, salamanders

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