AP Test Review Part Five

AP Test Review Part Five Labelle Époque- WWII

MASS POLITICS: 1850-1914 • Historians speak of the rise of mass politics in the second half of the nineteenth century. Mass politics arose from the Dual Revolution- • The ideal of representative • The development of transportation and communication technologies as a product industrialization. Two basic features characterize mass politics in the period 1850-1914: 1. Mass communication- with telegraphs, telephones, radio, and cheap newspapers, governments both responded to and manipulated public opinion.

MASS POLITICS: 1850-1914 2. Increase in conflict- public opinion also sharpened ethnic and class conflict. “Outsiders,” such as women, workers, and ethnic/religious minorities, demanded inclusion in the political process.

LIBERAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN THE 19TH CENTURY The nineteenth century marked the high tide of classical Liberalism. Symbols of the Liberal achievement include: • Constitutional government • Representative assemblies • Free trade • Expansion of suffrage (the vote) • Guarantees of rights • Middle-class influence in government • Spread of education and literacy • Weakening of established churches

THIRD REPUBLIC OF FRANCE- TENSIONS By 1878 moderates had succeeded in establishing the basis for a parliamentary democracy. Nonetheless, important groups, such as the Catholic Church and monarchists, never reconciled themselves to the existence of republican government, which they associated with the worst excesses of the French Revolution. • The Dreyfus Affair highlighted the divisions within the Third Republic.

THE DREYFUS AFFAIR • In 1894, a French military court found Captain Dreyfus, a Jewish officer, guilty of treason on very thin evidence. The victim of anti-Semitism, he was sent to Devil’s Island, and the army refused to reopen the case. • French author Emily Zola (1840-1902) condemned his case in his pamphlet J’ Accuse (I Accuse). Eventually the government pardoned Dreyfus, but the fallout continued. • Republicans conducted an anticlerical campaign culminating in the complete separation of church and state in 1905 and the secularization of education by state.

PRE-WWI GERMANY: KULTURKAMPF • After its unification, German industrial, political, and military power soared. • Bismarck successfully manipulated democratic politics and the party system in the Reichstag to enact his policies. • First, Bismarck allied himself with the Liberal Party, which supported his attack on the Catholic Church in Germany. The Kulturkampf (struggle for culture) arose from the complex situation surrounding Italian unification. • Bismarck pushed through the Reichstag laws restricting the powers of the clergy, expelled the Jesuits, and jailed a number of bishops. When the campaign proved unsuccessful, Bismarck abandoned it and formed an alliance with the Catholic Center Party.

PRE-WWI GERMANY: WELFARE STATE • Bismarck now moved to restrict the power of the Social Democratic Party. The SPD operated as a moderate socialist party interested in obtaining benefits for the working class through the exercise of political power. • Bismarck initiated a welfare program (what he called “state socialism”), the first in Europe, of old age, accident, unemployment, and health benefits.] • When Kaiser William II ascended to the throne he soon dismissed Bismarck and embarked on a more conciliatory policy toward the SPD at home and a more aggressive foreign policy abroad

FEMINISM & WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE • Economic developments during the 2nd Industrial Revolution allowed women more freedom. “White-collar jobs” in new economic sectors- like telephone operators- provided women with income and better working conditions. • These jobs led women to push for economic and legal reforms. • In some western European nations between 1850-1914 women gained the right to own property, divorce, and gain custody of their children.

WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE • The suffrage movement was occurring in Europe and the United States. • In England it was led by the Pankhurst family- Emmeline and her daughters. • The Women’s Social and Political Union participated in militant activities- arson, hunger strikes, etc. • Many nations granted women the right to vote after WWI, a recognition to their contributions in the conflict.

JEWS, ANTI-SEMITISM, AND ZIONISM • With the Enlightenment many governments liberated Jews from legal restrictions and ghettos • This led to an assimilation of Jews into business, medicine, and law. Prominent Jews, such as Marx, Freud, and Einstein contributed with backlash. • In the late 19th-century, anti-Semitism took on a racial tone due to Social Darwinism. • Mass politics fed the creation of anti-Semitic politics. • In Russia, organized persecutions called pogroms persisted. • In response, Theodor Herzl founded Zionism, a movement of Jews to Palestine.

LABELLE ÉPOQUE ART: IMPRESSIONISM • Photography altered the purpose of the artist. Now artists no longer relied on patrons, they could sell their works to middle-class customers, and paint based on what they felt/wanted to paint. • The first major artistic trend following the invention of photography was impressionism. They were infatuated with light and shadow, and painted quickly their “impression” of the moment. Ex. Claude Monet or Edgar Degas.

POSTIMPRESSIONISTS • More interested in form and structure, major postimpressionist painters included Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin. They would paint in off colors based on their feelings. • Georges Seurat created a related movement named pointillism, after the small “dots” of color, which when combined formed a clear picture of shadow and light. Seurat’s Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte provides a view of the individualistic leisure of the modern city.

CUBISTS • Prior to WWI, the movement of Cubism began. Cubism broke apart scenes to analyzable parts and resembled in unique ways to provide the viewer with simultaneous multiple perspectives. Pablo Picasso is the most famous Cubist painter.

World War I (1914-1918) • The war was sparked by the shooting of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, but the shooting was only a catalyst. • All of the elements leading to war had been in place for most of the 20th century. The shooting just provided an immediate cause. • The causes can be remembered by using the acronym MAIN

M= MILITARISM • Militarism: Europe had been experiencing an arms race ever since the unification of Germany, driven by mass production and the 2nd Industrial Revolution. • Major naval rivalries existed between Germany & England. • Never before or since have greater percentages served in their nations armies. • Government leaders associated national greatness with a strong military. • Germany began to work on the Schlieffen Plan, designed to fight a two front war against France and Russia.

More Underlying Causes • Alliance systems: These led nations to take rash actions, knowing that their allies would come to their aid. • Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary • Originally called the Three Emperors League (Germany, Russia, Austria), it ended when Russia withdrew, due to rivalries with Austria over the Balkan region. • Triple Entente: Russia, France, and England.

I= IMPERIALISM • Imperialism: Colonial rivalries between the major European powers created hatred and hostility that led to war. • 1905: First Moroccan Crisis: Germany tried to take over Tangiers (Morocco) and called an international conference (Algiciris) to settle its ownership. Germany was humiliated & France kept Morocco. • 1911: Second Moroccan Crisis: The Germans sent the gunboat, Panther, to Agadir (Morocco) to protest French occupation of the region. This caused England and France to join together to draw up war plans against the Germans. Germany withdrew after gaining a piece of the French Congo.

N= NATIONALISM • Nationalism: This force brought about WWI in a variety of ways: • Nationalism spawned the unification of Italy & Germany and caused a major shift in the balance of power. • Nationalism caused the great powers to pursue expansionist policies. • Nationalism on the part of ethnic minorities in Austria drew Austria and Russia into the conflict.

NATIONALISM IN THE BALKANS • 1908: Balkan Crisis (Bosnian Crisis):Both Austria & Serbia wanted to expand in the Balkans. When Serbia protested the Austrian annexation of Bosnia, Russia sided with Serbia. Russia threatened to declare war, but Germany sided with Austria and Russia backed down. • Balkan War of 1912 & Balkan War of 1913 • The important thing to note about these wars is that they were localized conflicts & to note the nationalist issues revolving around the Balkans.

The Assassination & War • June 28, 1914: Sarajevo: The Austrian Archduke was assassinated by Gavrillo Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black Hand. • The Black Hand was a terrorist group, who wanted Bosnia freed from Austria. • Austrian Ultimatum: Austria blamed Serbian nationalists for the shooting and demanded a free hand in their own investigation of the crime. • Serbia’s Reply: Serbia accepted most of the ultimatum, but rejected parts that would destroy her sovereignty.

The Crisis Leads to War • German Actions: On one hand, Germany offered Austria a “blank check” of support. • Russian troops moved to mobilize along the German border • July 28, 1914: Germany invaded Belgium and Austria declared war on Serbia. • Germany swept through Belgium, causing England and France to declare war. • Germany then declared war on Russia, who declared war on the central powers.

THE WAR IN THE WEST • The Triple Entente became the Allies and the Triple Alliance became the Central Powers. • Europe did not get the war it expected. What was supposed to be over by Christmas turned into a stalemate by the end of 1914. • Military tactics lagged behind the technology, so trench warfare developed on the Western Front.

The War in the East • Russia initially held off the limited number of German troops on the eastern front, but when German strength increased and Austria and Turkey became involved, the war was a complete disaster for Russia. • Russian losses were enormous and led to the collapse of the Russian gov’t by 1917. • Treaty of Brest Litovsk: 1917: Russia out of the war.

The War at Sea • The war at sea was almost more important than the land aspect of the war. • British naval strength was superior to that of the Germans, but German U-boats inflicted great damage and were one factor in the entrance of the US in the war.

The War Ends • Despite temporary German victories, largely caused by the use of poison gas, the allied victory over Germany at the Battle of Verdun turned the tide of war. • The revolutions that took place within Germany and Austria also added to the military victory of the Allies. • Eventually, British, French, Italian, and American armies, led by French Marshall Foch ( leader of the Vichy Regime during WWII) broke German lines and led to the armistice on Nov. 11, 1918.

ORGANIZING FOR TOTAL WAR • The Great War involved the full mobilization to the nation’s resources and population. It brought about the following changes: • compulsory military training • forced employment of men & women in war-industry jobs • restrictions on labor & management for the war cause. The brought an end to laissez-faire economics. • war planning, regulations, price controls, rationing, & massive propaganda campaigns • To pay for the war governments: raised taxes, depreciated currencies, and borrowed money (from the US). • Many women entered the workforce for the first time. In Russia, women even fought on the front lines. This participation led to women’s suffrage after the war

Versailles Conference • The Versailles settlement is often compared to the Congress of Vienna regarding their respective uses of collective security and the success of their decisions. • 1919: Versailles conference: Big 4 made all important decisions: England, France, Italy, and the US (Wilson). • It was impossible to return Europe to the state it was in before- since 4 empires were toppled- Austria- Hungary, Russia, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. New states needed to be formed.

WOODROW WILSON’S 14 POINTS • His vision for restructuring Europe and “making the world safe for democracy.” • Wilson declared WWI was the “war to end all wars” • He wanted diplomacy, freedom of the seas, arms reduction, self-determination, and collective security through the League of Nations. • The other members of the Big Four believed all of this was impossible.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES: FINAL PRODUCT • League of Nations created (US and USSR didn’t join) • Alsace & Lorraine restored to France • French exploitation of the Saar valley for 15 years • Huge reparations to be paid by Germany • Confiscation of German military supplies, and Germany allowed to have only a 100,000 man militia.

THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES: FINAL PRODUCT • Demilitarization of the Rhineland • War guilt clause blamed Germany for the war and justified reparations • German and Turkish colonies taken over by the League of Nations who gave overseas colonies to the allies and created mandates in the Middle East. • Restoration of Poland • Creation of Yugoslavia (denying Italy the land it was promised before the war)

TREATY OF VERSAILLES: CONSEQUENCES AND CONFLICTS • The Weimar Republic, Germany’s postwar government, was saddled with what most Germans considered being “stabbed in the back.” Discontent over the treaty was used by the Nazis. • Economist John Maynard Keyes predicted the ruination of the world economy by the Treaty in his Economic Consequences of the Treaty. He was correct. • The treaty caused the isolation of the US and USSR. • Without full commitment to the League of Nations and collective security, Europe would quickly have another world war.

WEAK COLLECTIVE SECURITY • Many in Europe relied on the new League of Nations to ensure collective security. The League lacked enforcement mechanisms. For example, The League lacked its own armed force and so depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions (such as a trade embargo) which the League ordered, or provide an army, when needed, for the League to use. However, they were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could also hurt the League members imposing the sanctions and given the anti-war attitude following World War I, countries were reluctant to take military action.

LONG-TERM CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1861-1905 • Following Alexander II’s reforms (including the abolition of serfdom in 1861) Russia appeared to be moving in the right direction. • Former serfs were forced to continue to live on mirs (rural communities) until they paid off their lands. • Russian nobility kept the best land, sticking former serfs with the rest. Rural overcrowding and food shortages led to unrest. • Russia began to industrialize in the later half of the century, with industry in concentrated in Moscow and St. Petersburg. These cities emerged as centers of unrest.

LONG-TERM CAUSES OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1861-1905 • Alexander II was assassinated on the same day he was to make Russia a constitutional monarchy. • Alexander III brutally repressed dissent. • Two parties were established in response in secret. The Mensheviks (who wanted a mass-based political party that was Socialist). The Bolsheviks (who claimed to be professional leaders of a revolution).

REVOLUTION OF 1905 • Russia’s loss in the Russo-Japanese War produced an economic and political crisis. • Protesters asking for the opportunity to form labor unions, led by Father Gapon, were fired on at the Winter Palace in an event known as Bloody Sunday. • Tsar Nicholas II, issued the October Manifesto allowing for the creation of a legislative assembly. He believed in divine right and was given the veto power. This made the Duma essentially useless.

WWI AND THE FALL OF THE TSAR • Although the czar had not followed through on his promises made after the revolution of 1905, dissatisfied parties in Russia tried to cooperate with the gov’t in the defense of Russia in 1914. • After the armies began to lose, the czar fired competent generals and replaced them himself, at the front. • opposition grew more discontented, as a result. • Further discontent was centered on the royal family’s assistant Rasputin, who had great sway over the tsarina and her political decisions while her husband was off at war. She did not inform her husband of the problems.

The Revolution of March, 1917 • As war losses mounted, food shortages at home led to rioting in Russian cities. • On International Women’s Day, in March of 1917, a food riot broke out over the high cost of bread. • The strike was followed by a mutiny among the troops and the dissolving of the Duma. • The new gov’t that took over was known as the Provisional Gov’t & it was run by Alexander Kerensky.

PROBLEMS FOR THE NEW GOV’T • Russians wanted to get out of WWI, because they were losing so badly, and because supplies were so short on the homefront. • Kerensky accepted a bribe and kept Russia in the war. • Hunger was a problem all over Russia. • Most Russians wanted land reform. • The Prov. Gov’t did nothing to help the distressed population.

The Soviets • Soviets were small workers’ councils which had been established following the revolution of 1905. • The Petrograd Soviet was under the control of Trotsky and was the most radical group calling for further action. It acted much like the Paris Commune in the French Revolution. • The Soviets called for an immediate end to the war, for peace with Germany, and for the seizure of land by the peasants & workers.

LENIN • April 16, 1917: Germany ships Lenin back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland in a sealed rail car. • Lenin’s April Thesis outlines his changes to traditional Marxism. • Against Imperialism • Small group of professionals (the Bolsheviks) need to lead the revolution, as opposed to a large Proletariat base. • Russia didn’t have to wait for it to industrialize to have a revolution, that could occur after the “dictatorship of the Proletariat” • Lenin’s motto: “Peace, Land, & Bread.” • This was exactly what the people wanted to hear.

The October Revolution • Nov. 6, 1917: Led by Lenin & Trotsky, Bolshevik leaders, soldiers, and workers quickly took over Petrograd, stormed the winter palace, & arrested the members of the provisional government. • Alexander Kerensky escaped and lived in exile. • In January 1918, they recently elected Constituent Assembly (the legislative body) was disbanded. This plunged Russia into a Civil War.

Military & Internal Problems • March 3, 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk took Russia out of the war and ceded large amounts of territory to Germany. • Russia lost about 1/3 of its population. • Civil War was raging between the Reds (Bolsheviks) and the Whites (everyone who opposed the reds). • By 1921, the reds won the civil war. • The Red Army- led by Trotsky- won because it had a unifying vision & ruthless tactics • During the war, used war communism to allow workers to run factories. This proved disastrous.

RED TERROR • Once the Bolsheviks secured their power, they engaged in a red terror designed to eliminate “class enemies” • Under the influence of the Cheka (the secret police who later became the KGB) 1000s of former bourgeoisies, gentry, White Army, etc. were shot without a trial. In all over 2 million were killed.

Economic Problems • Though the whites were put down, the Soviet internal situation remained critical in 1921, with the economy being below pre-war levels. • The anarchists and peasants began to revolt in the countryside in an attempt to do something about the starvation & suffering of the masses.

The New Economic Policy (NEP) • This was Lenin’s plan to retain control and provide temporary relief. • Under the NEP, peasants were allowed to keep part of their produce, which they were allowed to sell for cash profit on newly-recreated local markets. • The gov’t kept control of heavy industry & internat’l trade, but light manufacturing and internal trade was returned to private hands.

THE POWER STRUGGLE: STALIN VS. TROTSKY • Lenin had a series of strokes between 1922 & 1924. He finally died in 1924. • Trotsky & Stalin both wanted to be Lenin’s successor. • Trotsky was a theorist who had organized the red army and the Petrograd Soviet. • Stalin was an activist who had been instrumental in forcing the minority republics to unite into the USSR. He also had control of the machinery of gov’t. • When Trotsky publicly criticized Stalin’s foreign policy in 1927, Stalin had him exiled to Siberia. • Trotsky eventually escaped to the west & was assassinated by Stalin’s men in 1941.

STALIN’S FIVE YEAR PLANS • When Stalin came to power the NEP ended. • Stalin stated “We are 50 or a 100 years behind the advanced countries. We must make good distance in ten years. Either we do it or we are crushed.” • Five year plans were goals to build a strong base of heavy industry and modern infrastructure of electricity, roads, and factories. • The command economy developed, by a central govt. agency • First 5 year plan was successful, in part because they were so far behind • Soviet manufacturing was poor quality, with few consumer goods.

FORCED COLLECTIVIZATION OF AGRICULTURE • During the NEP a wealthy class of peasants accumulated land, known as the kulaks. • Stalin forced the and all peasants onto collective farms, taking their land. • The kulaks resisted by destroying crops and slaughtering livestock. Millions were killed in the collectivization and millions more died for the forced famine. Estimates are up to 10 million.

Purges (1934-1938) • From 1934-1938, Stalin directed a series of wholesale purges consisting of trumped-up or false accusations, mock trials, and then suicide or execution. More than 4 million were accused. • Any were sent to gulags, or labor camps. • He did away with most of the old Bolshevik leaders and others who could challenge his power.

AP Test Review Part Five