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Differences among the Topic, Problem, Purpose, and Questions. Title. Topic. Distance learning. Distance learning and students’ motivation. Research Problem. Lack of students in distance classes. To study why students do not attend distance education classes at a community college. Purpose
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Differences among the Topic, Problem, Purpose, and Questions Title Topic Distancelearning Distancelearning and students’ motivation. Research Problem Lack of students in distance classes To study why students do not attend distance education classes at a community college Purpose Statement Does the use of interactive web pages help to increase students’ interest in distance education classes? Research Question Hypothesis The use of interactive web pages will increase students’ interest in distance education.
Writing an APA- Style Research Report Chapter 16
APA style Is used by many publications throughout the behavioral sciences, however, it is not universal.
Writing Style • A research report is not the same as creative writing • Don’t try to persuade, amuse, entertain, challenge, confuse, or surprise your reader
Impersonal style • Should be written in an objective style. • Avoid distracting the reader with literary devices such as alliteration, rhyming, deliberate ambiguity, or abrupt changes in topic. • Don’t advocate or promote an idea
Impersonal style • You should avoid colloquial expressions such as “ once in a blue moon” ( in place of “ rarely”) • and jargon such as “ left- winger” ( in place of “ politically liberal”).
Impersonal style • You may use personal pronouns to describe what you did as a researcher, e.g., “ I instructed the participants,” • but keep in mind that you are writing a research report, not a personal journal. • There is a difference between qualitative and quantitative reports.
Verb Tense • In your literature review when discussing past events that occurred at a specific time, use the past tense • If not at a specific time or is continuing into the present, use the present perfect tense • When you present your results, always use the past tense. • After you have described the study and presented the results, switch to the present tense to discuss the results and your conclusions (“ the data suggest”).
Reducing Biased Language • Describe people with a level of specificity that is accurate. For example, when describing ethnic groups, instead of general terms such as Asian American or Hispanic American, use Korean American or Mexican American.
Reducing Biased Language • Be sensitive to labels; call people what they prefer to be called. For example, instead of “schizophrenics” and “ the elderly” you may use “ people diagnosed with schizophrenia” and “older adults”
Citations • Previous research has shown that response to an auditory stimulus is much faster than response to a visual stimulus ( Smith & Jones, 2009). • In a related study, Jones ( 2008) found that… • It has been found that word recall decreases as a function of age ( Jones, Smith, & Brown, 2002).
Citations When a publication has six or more authors, you only include the first author’s last name followed by “et al.” and the date for the first and subsequent citations. (Katz et al., 2002)
Multiple citation • ( Jones, Smith, & Brown, 2002; Smith & Jones, 2009)
Literature Review • Try to find a few closely related studies rather than many unrelated studies. • Select only those references that are truly useful and contribute to your arguments.
Paraphrase • Quotations should be used sparingly. • As a general rule, it is better to paraphrase a point using your own words than to quote directly from another work.
Direct Quote • For short quotations, fewer than 40 words, the quotation is embedded in the text with quotation marks at both ends. • Resenhoeft, Villa, and Wiseman ( 2008) report that participants judged a model without a visible tattoo as “ more attractive, athletic, and intelligent than the same model shown with a tattoo” ( p. 594).
language • It also is customary to distinguish between citations of empirical results and citations of theory or interpretation. • To report an empirical result, for example, you could use: Jones ( 2008) demonstrated… To cite a theory or speculation, for example, you might use: Jones ( 2008)argued…
Title 1. Avoid unnecessary words. “ A study of women in higher education” or “ Investigating the relationship between IQ and Math score.” 2. If possible, the first word in the title should be of special relevance or importance to the content of the paper. 3. Avoid cute or catchy titles
Abstract • A one- sentence statement of the problem or research question. • A brief description of the subjects or participants ( identifying how many and any relevant characteristics). • A brief description of the research method and procedures. • A report of the results . • A statement about the conclusions or implications.
Introduction & (lit review) • A general introduction to the topic of the paper and why this problem is important and deserves new research. • The relevant literature; only the articles that are directly relevant to your research question. Do not provide detailed descriptions. The literature review should not be an article- by- article description of one study after another; instead, the articles should be presented in an integrated manner.
Worst scenario • Making a list of unrelated or related but fragmented research articles,. • Jackson (2007) said….. • Betty (2009) said…. • Thomas (1998) conducted a study about….
The purpose of a lit review • Each research study is part of an existing body of knowledge • Your study should be a logical extension of past research
Literature Map • You may use a literature map before start writing your literature review. • A map helps you convey to others , the current picture of the literature on a topic.
Intro & literature review • The specific goal, hypothesis, or question that the research study addresses. State the problem or purpose of your study, and clearly define the relevant variables. • Briefly describe the research strategy . Also explain how the research strategy provides the information necessary to address your hypothesis or research question.
Method • A- Subjects or participants (selection procedures) • B- Procedures • The settings and locations, • Operational definitions • Ethical standards met and safety- monitoring procedures, • Groups or conditions and how many individuals were in each condition, • Instructions given to participants, • Any experimental manipulation or intervention • Research design and Statistical analysis • C- Instruments , equipments, tools (validity & Reliability)
Results • Usually, a results section begins with a statement of the primary outcome of the study, followed by the basic descriptive statistics (usually means and standard deviations), then the inferential statistics ( usually the results of hypothesis tests), and finally the measures of effect size. • The results section simply provides a complete and unbiased reporting of the findings, just the facts, with no discussion of the findings
Reports of statistical significance ( 1) the type of test used, (LSD, Tukey, Bonferroni, Sidak, Scheffe) ( 2) the degrees of freedom, ( 3) the outcome of the test, ( 4) the level of significance, ( 5) the size and direction of the effect
Discussion • The discussion section should begin with a restatement of the hypothesis. • In the discussion section, you offer interpretation, evaluation, and discussion of the implications of your findings.
Discussion • It can be helpful to think of the discussion section as a mirror image of the introduction. Remember, the introduction moved from general to specific, using items from the literature to focus on a specific hypothesis. Now, in the discussion section, you begin with a specific hypothesis ( your outcome) and relate it back to the existing literature. • In the last paragraphs of the discussion section, you may reach beyond the actual results and begin to consider their implications and/ or applications.
Tables & Figures • As a general rule, tables and figures supplement the text; they should not duplicate information that has already been presented in text form, and they should not be completely independent of the text. • Tables, formatted according to APA specifications, are each typed separately on a new page. The table number and title, respectively, are displayed at the top of the page, each at the left margin.
2- Abstract Running head No indent
