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The Unification of Italy and Germany, 1848-1914

The Unification of Italy and Germany, 1848-1914. Nationalism and the Balance of Power. Key Questions. How was the Crimean War a turning point in the diplomacy of the nineteenth century?

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The Unification of Italy and Germany, 1848-1914

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  1. The Unification of Italy and Germany, 1848-1914 Nationalism and the Balance of Power

  2. Key Questions • How was the Crimean War a turning point in the diplomacy of the nineteenth century? • How did Bismarck and Cavour apply the “lessons of 1848” and use Realpolitik in the unification of Italy and Germany? • Analyze the impact of these unifications on the European balance of power, 1871-1914.

  3. Lessons of 1848 • 1. Nationalism is a powerful force—Conservatives cannot ignore • 2. Slogans, assemblies, barricades cannot achieve unity and revolution—need armies, bureaucracy, industry—POWER! • 3. The intervention of outside powers must be avoided or courted • 4. Ignore public opinion at your own peril—a new breed of leader

  4. Crimean War (1853-56)—Causes • “an avoidable war with significant consequences” • The “Eastern Question” • Fear of the Russian colossus (the Straits) • Immediate issue—protection of Christian minorities • Russian ultimatum and Turkish declaration of war (w/French & British backing)

  5. Crimean War—Course * Russia defeats O.E., moves into Wallachia & Moldavia • Fr/G.B. intervene with ultimatum • Russia complies but war fever too strong • Austria—”we will astonish the world with our ingratitude” • Siege, rifled weapons, trenches, supply/medical issues • Symbol—”Charge of the Light Brigade” • The “only hero”—Florence Nightengale

  6. Crimean War—Consequences • Alexander II (1855-81) and need for reform • Treaty of Paris—Russia disgorges territory & demilitarizes Black Sea • Concert of Europe destroyed—”go one’s own way” • Austria isolated, Balkan conflict w/Russia • G.B.—”Splendid isolation” until 1900 • France—false impression of leadership, Napoleon III and nationalism • Piedmont-Sardinia’s bid for friends • Sets the stage for unification diplomacy and patterns leading to WWI

  7. Italy—a “Geographical Expression” • Historical lack of unity, issue of HRE conflict but Pope and Emperor • Habsburg-Valois Wars & foreign domination • Napoleon—spreads nationalism, rev. goals, republics • Congress of Vienna places Italy under foreign control • Revolutions of 1848—role of Piedmont, Roman Republic, etc.

  8. Italian Nationalism • Mazzini and Young Italy (republican) • Garibaldi and Red Shirts (exile) • Carbonari and Metternich • Possible govts.—republic, confederation under Pope, constitutional monarchy (Piedmont) Garibaldi

  9. Piedmont-Sardinia and Cavour • Count Camillo Benso di Cavour—moderate Liberal & pragmatic, Il Risorgimento, personality, fortune in shipping, banking, industry • Econ. expansion—canals, roads, RRs, shipping, industry • Creates modern tax/budget system and army

  10. Cavour’s Diplomacy • Crimean War • Plombieres (1858) • Magenta & Solferino—Napoleon’s fear • Revolutions (1860) and plebiscites in other states • Garibaldi & Red Shirts into Two Sicilies, up peninsula (Papal States), Piedmont intervenes, Garibaldi relinquishes conquest

  11. The Future of Italy • Proclaimed 3/17/1861 • Cavour dies 3 mos. later from overwork • “picking up pieces”—alliance w/Prussia gets Venetia (1866) & Rome (1870) • Problems—economic underdev., opposition of Papacy, aggressive nationalism, corruption (trasformismo), Mezzagiorno– regionalism • Assessment—”the passion of Mazzini, audacity of Garibaldi, cunning of Cavour”

  12. Germany—the “800-lb. Gorilla” • Failed efforts at unity under Habsburgs • Rise of Prussia (checked by Austria) • Napoleon promoted German nat’lism abolished HRE • German Confederation (from C. of Vienna) dominated by conservative Austria • Passive Prussia—status quo • Failure of 1848—major defeat for Liberals

  13. The Role of Prussia • Reforms of 1807—army, admin., serfdom • Zollverein (1834) created by List • Constitution of 1850 • 3 voting levels (favors Junkers) • Middle class up w/industrializ. • Minister resp. to king not Reichstag • Humiliation of Olmutz stops Prussia attempt • Fred. Will. IV (1840-61)—insane absolutist • William I (1861-88)—intent on army reform & conservative control • Army reforms (1862)—General Staff (von Moltke), needle gun, Landwehr, draft

  14. Bismarck—”iron and blood” • Personality—Junker, Romanticism, diplomatic experience • Allegiances evolve toward world statesman • Appointed Chancellor in 1862 • Constitutional Crisis—control of finances & army • “iron and blood”—strategy and rhetoric • Realpolitik—definition and comparison w/Napoleon III & Hitler

  15. Bismarck’s Realpolitik, Phase I • Approach—chess player, opportunist, isolate opponents • Polish Revolt (1863)—wins over Russia • Danish War (1864) • Schleswig/Holstein (occup. by Denmark) • Ignores Germ. Conf. & ties Aust. to Prussian aims • Conv. of Gastein—admin. of provinces • Austro-Prussian War (1866)—Seven Weeks War • Goal—eliminate Austria from German politics • Buys French neutrality w/vague promises in Rhineland • Italy, Russia, and G.B. neutral or friendly • Prussia wins quickly—RRs, organization, weapons • Peace of Prague—Austria surrenders Venetia, bows out of German affairs, Dual Monarchy (1867)

  16. Constitutional Arrangements • Indemnity Bill (1866)—causes split of Liberals (National Liberals) • North German Conf.—universal male suffrage (Bismarck’s idea), key role of Chancellor and Prussian Minister of State • Alliances with South German States (Catholic)—looks to French hostility

  17. Bismarck’s Realpolitik, Part II • Isolation of France • Vacancy of Spanish throne—Hohezollern cousin of William I • William I withdraws but Nap. Overplays • Ems Dispatch—“red flag for the Gallic bull” • Prussian prep—RRs, staff, “landscape painters” • French military disorganized (Nap. captured at Sedan) • Paris Commune (Nov. 1870-Jan. 1871)—class struggle & creation of Third Republic (bad start) • Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)—5 billion franc indemnity, loss of Alsace-Lorraine (ethnic identity and issues)—concern w/non-Germans Bismarck, Roon, von Moltke

  18. The German Empire • How Germany was made—authoritarian, militaristic, anti-Liberal • Assessing the work of Bismarck & his tactics • Effect on BOP • “A Satisfied Giant” until 1890 when Bismarck dismissed • THEN…..

  19. Disraeli’s Quote “There is not a diplomatic tradition which has not been swept away. You have a new world, new influences at work, new and unknown objects and danger with which to cope….The balance of power has been entirely destroyed, and the country which suffers most, and feels the effect of the change most, is England.”

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