U.S./Middle East

1. U.S./Middle East • The State of Israel was formed in 1948 • large numbers of Palestinians became refugees • wars between Israel and its Arab neighbors took place in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973 • Israel was successful in all these conflicts

2. from its formation Israel enjoyed the unconditional support of the United States • during the Cold War the Arab countries, especially Syria and Egypt, were backed by the Soviet Union

3. Nasser in the 1950’s emerged as the leading political figure in the Arab world • his alliance with the Soviet Union alienated the U.S. • in 1967, following Israel’s spectacular victory in the Six Day War, Nasser sought to resign

4. Israel’s stunning victory in the war led to its occupation of Arab lands - the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights remain in Israeli hands • during the war President Johnson and Soviet premier, Kosygin maintained open lines of communication

5. Egyptian policy became more pro-Ameican under Anwar Sadat • Sadat broke with the Soviet Union; however, in October, 1973 he ordered an attack against Israel • Israel prevailed, with the help of massive American arms shipments. Kissinger intervened to bring about a rapid ceasefire

6. Kissinger gained respect for his efforts in Cairo and Tel Aviv • the Soviets were unable to play a role in the negotiations • in 1978 Carter mediated the Camp David Accords • Sadat and Israeli P.M. Begin received the Nobel Prize

7. the Sadat policy, of playing one superpower against the other, contributed to weakening the relationship built on detente • Egypt’s closer ties to the U.S. were purchased at the price of Arab antagonism • in 1981 Sadat was assassinated in Cairo

8. Iran • following World War II the U.S. and Britain had forced the Soviet Union to withdraw from Iran • in 1953 both countries supported a CIA overthrow of the government of Iranian Prime Minister Mosaddeq

9. through the succeeding decades the western powers were closely tied to the regime of Muhammad Reza - the shah • his regime was corrupt and undemocratic • his secret police, SAVAK, repressed all political opposition

10. Western oil interests controlled much of the Iranian economy and provided the funds for the shah’s regime • the shah’s failure to promote reform, coupled with uneven economic growth and growing religious opposition led to his overthrow in 1979

11. President Carter had called for an end to human rights violations • the shah responded with repressive measures • the masses called for the end of the regime - “Death to the shah, death to America”

12. the shah was forced out and the Ayatollah Khomeini took power • Khomeini created an Islamic Republic - western influence in Iran was eradicated • changes impacted education, role of women, the military, government and the economy during Iran’s cultural revolution

13. in 1979 the invasion of the U.S. embassy in Teheran led to the taking of American hostages • both the U.S. (Great Satan) and the Soviet Union were condemned by Khomeini • Iran sought to spread its brand of Islamic fundamentalism to other countries in the region

14. between 1980 and 1988 Iran and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq fought a bitter war of attrition • following Saddam’s occupation of Kuwait in1990 President Bush launched Operation Desert Storm

15. Central America • beginning in 1981 the Reagan “administration chose confrontation as the keynote of its policy in Central America” • the Carter policy, with its emphasis on human rights, was ridiculed as being naive and responsible for the rise of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua

16. El Salvador • Reagan referred to the region as a “Red lake” • ignoring the human rights abuses in El Salvador, which included the murder of Archbishop Romero(1980) and four American nuns, Reagan focused on defeat of the rebels

17. through the 1980’s the Reagan administration supported counter-insurgency efforts against the FMLN • later Bush backed Cristiani and his ally D’Aubisson in the government formed after the election of 1989 • D’Aubisson was implicated in the murder of Archbishop Romero and the ongoing activities of right-wing death squads

18. in 1989, as part of a major counter-offensive against the rebels, six Jesuit priests and their housekeeper were murdered in San Salvador • following a threat by Congress to freeze aid to El Salvador the Cristiani government and FMLN began negotiations • peace accords were signed in 1992

19. Nicaragua • the Soviet Union, Cuba and Nicaragua were blamed for the instability in El Salvador • Reagan’s policy in the region centered on attempts to overthrow the Sandinista government

20. actions included cutting off economic ties; CIA sabotage; and supply of arms to an anti-government guerrilla force, the contras • when Congress ended aid to the contras in1985 the Reagan administration continued to secretly supply them with funds from the profits derived from arms sales to Iran • the contras failed in their efforts to overthrow the Sandinista regime

21. in 1983 Reagan ordered an invasion of Grenada • a quick victory over local and Cuban troops led to the installation of a pro-American government • Reagan’s popularity soared, while some compared the American action to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan