Human Body Systems

Human Body Systems Alyssa Larson

Table of Contents *Page numbers are located on bottom right corner of each slide SECTION 1 – The Digestive System Digestive System Introduction 1-3 Drawing of the Digestive System 4 Organs of the Digestive System 4-24 Digestion of Large Food Molecules 25 Role of Enzymes in Digestion 26 Physical and Chemical Digestion 27-28 Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids 29-31 Lactose Intolerance 32 Stomach Ulcers 33-34 Digestive System Reference Pages 35-36

Table of Contents SECTION 2 – The Circulatory System Circulatory System Introduction 37-38 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels 39-42 Drawing of the Heart 43 Pathway of Blood Through the Heart 44-48 Composition of Blood 49-50 Erythrocyte Structure and Function 51 Open and Closed Circulatory Systems 52-53 Variations of the Circulatory System 54-57 Sickle Cell Disease 58-59 Atherosclerosis 60-61 Circulatory System Reference Pages 62-63

Table of Contents SECTION 3 – The Respiratory System Respiratory System Introduction 64-65 Drawing of the Ventilation System 66 Alveoli 67 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in the Blood 68-69 The Path of Oxygen Into the Bloodstream 70-72 Inhalation and Exhalation 73-75 Asthma 76-77 Pneumonia 78-79 Respiratory System Reference Pages 80-81

Table of Contents SECTION 4 – The Immune System Immune System Introduction 82-83 Recognition of Pathogens 84-85 Innate and Acquired Immunity 86 Active and Passive Immunity 87 Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immunity 88 B and T Lymphocytes 89 Antibiotics and Bacteria 90 Allergies 91-92 HIV/AIDS 93-94 Immune System Reference Pages 95-96

Table of Contents SECTION 5 – The Excretory System Excretory System Introduction 97-98 Types of Nitrogenous Wastes 99-101 Drawing of the Kidney 102 Drawing of the Nephron 103 The Nephron 104-109 Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, and Excretion 110-112 Gout 113-114 Urinary Tract Infection 115-116 Excretory System Reference Pages 117-118

The Digestive System 1

Digestive System Digestive System • The digestive system’s function is to break food down into molecules the body can absorb • Allows us to absorb nutrients and use food as fuel for ATP production 2

Digestive System Organs of the Digestive System Alimentary Canal Organs Accessory Organs • Mouth • Pharynx • Esophagus • Stomach • Small intestine • Large intestine • Rectum • Anus • Salivary glands • Liver • Gallbladder • Pancreas 3

Digestive System 4

Digestive System Alimentary Organs • Organs in the alimentary canal include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus • The alimentary organs form the alimentary canal, which extends from the mouth to the anus • Food passes through organs in the alimentary canal 5

Digestive System Accessory Organs • Includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas • The accessory organs of the digestive system are not a part of the alimentary canal (food does not pass through them), but they assist the alimentary organs in the process of digestion 6

Digestive System The Mouth • The first portion of the alimentary canal • The mouth is surrounded by the lips, cheeks, tongue, and palate • Receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up solid particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva (mastication) 7

Digestive System Salivary Glands • The salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food particles, helps bind them, and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates • Saliva is also a solvent, dissolving foods so that they can be tasted • Saliva helps cleanse the mouth and teeth 8

Digestive System Major Salivary Glands • The three major salivary glands are the parotid glands, the submandibular glands, and the sublingual glands • Parotid glands – the largest of the major salivary glands, located anterior to the ear • Submandibular glands – located in the floor of the mouth on the inside surface of the lower jaw • Sublingual glands – the smallest of the major salivary glands, located on the floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue 9

Digestive System Pharynx • The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus • The muscular walls of the pharynx and esophagus function in swallowing • The pharynx can be divided into three parts • Nasopharynx – located superior to the soft palate, provides a passageway for air during breathing • Oropharynx – posterior to the mouth, the oropharynx is a passageway for food moving downward from the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity • Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) – located inferior to the oropharynx, a passageway to the esophagus 10

Digestive System 11

Digestive System Esophagus • A straight, collapsible tube about 25 centimeters long • Provides a passageway for food • Its muscular wall propels food from the pharynx to the stomach • Penetrates the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus, and is continuous with the stomach • The esophagus contains mucous glands which secrete mucous to moisten and lubricate the inner lining of the tube • Muscle fibers at the entrance to the stomach remain contracted to prevent regurgitation of stomach contents into the esophagus. These muscle fibers relax briefly to allow swallowed food to enter the stomach. 12

Digestive System Stomach • The stomach is a pouch-like organ with a capacity of about one liter • Receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juice • Initiates the digestion of proteins, carries on limited nutrient absorption, and moves food into the small intestine 13

Digestive System Pancreas • Made primary of creatic acinar cells, cells that produce pancreatic juice • Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids • Pancreatic amylase – splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides • Pancreatic lipase – breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and monoglycerides • Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase– each splits the bonds between particular combinations of amino acids in proteins • Nucleases – break down nucleic acid molecules into nucleotides 14

Digestive System Pancreas • The hormone secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete a large quantity of fluid • Pancreatic juice has a high concentration of bicarbonate ions that neutralizes acidic materials arriving from the stomach • The alkalinity created by the bicarbonate ions also provides a favorable environment for the digestive enzymes 15

Digestive System Liver • The liver has many functions, including: • Storing glycogen, iron, vitamins A, D, and B12 • Removing toxic substances from the blood • Maintaining iron homeostasis • Synthesizing lipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol • Converting carbohydrate molecules into fat • The liver’s function in the digestive system is to secrete bile, a yellowish green liquid 16

Digestive System Liver • Bile secreted by the liver is made up of water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes • Bile salts aid digestive enzymes • They reduce surface tension and break fat globules (molecules of fats clumped together) into droplets, a process called emulsification • Allows lipases to digest fat molecules more effectively • Enhance absorption of fatty acids and cholesterol • Allows for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K 17

Digestive System Gallbladder • Stores bile between meals • Concentrates bile by reabsorbing water • Contracts to release bile into the duodenum when stimulated 18

Digestive System Sphincters • Sphincters are bands of muscle under either voluntary or involuntary control that encircle the hollow organs of the body and contract to close the pathways • The ileocecal sphincter joins the ileum of the small intestine to the cecum of the large intestine • The anus has two sphincter muscles, one under voluntary control and the other under involuntary control • The esophageal sphincter allows food to enter the stomach and prevents food from going up into the esophagus, while the pyloric sphincter controls gastric emptying 19

Digestive System Small Intestine • Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver • Completes digestion of nutrients in the substance arriving from the stomach • Absorbs the products of digestion • Transports the remaining residues into the large intestine 20

Digestive System Small Intestine • Parts of the small intestine include: • Duodenum – the shortest and most fixed portion of the small intestine • Jejunum – the diameter of the jejunum is greater than that of the ilium, and its wall is thicker and more active • Ilium – has a higher bacterial population than the jejunum 21

Digestive System Enzymes in the Small Intestine • Digestive enzymes found in the small intestine break down food molecules before absorption takes place. These enzymes include: • Peptidases – split peptides into amino acids • Sucrase – splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and fructose • Maltase – splits disaccharide maltose into two glucose molecules • Lactase – splits disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose • Intestinal lipase – splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol 22

Digestive System Large Intestine, Rectum, and Anus Parts of the Large Intestine • The large intestine absorbs ingested water and electrolytes remaining in the alimentary canal • Reabsorbs and recycles water and remnants of digestive secretions • Forms and stores feces • Cecum – the beginning of the large intestine, connected to the appendix • Ascending colon – begins at the cecum and extends upwards • Transverse colon – longest, most movable part of the large intestine • Descending colon – the transverse colon turns abruptly downward to become the descending colon • Sigmoid colon – the descending colon makes an S-shaped curve, where it becomes the sigmoid colon 23

Digestive System Rectum and Anus • The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid colon. It is attached to the sacrum, and becomes the anal canal about five centimeters inferior to the tip of the coccyx bone • At the distal end of the anal canal is the anus, which is where the anal canal opens to the outside of the body, the exit for feces 24

Digestive System Digestion of Large Food Molecules • It is important to be able to break down the food we eat into small molecules that can be used by the body • Ex: the body must convert starches into glucose before it can be used as an energy source, proteins must be broken down into amino acids, and fats must be broken down into their glycerol and fatty acid components • Molecules must be small enough to travel through the wall of the small intestine by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport. Food molecules must be broken down for nutrient absorption to take place. 25

Digestive System Role of Enzymes in Digestion • Enzymes in the digestive system are proteins molecules that break down a specific substance • The enzymes mentioned under the description of the pancreas and small intestine are important in breaking down specific components of the human diet (carbohydrates, proteins, fats) • In addition to the enzymes previously mentioned, enzymes involved in digestion include: • Salivary amylase – breaks down starch in the mouth • Pepsin – breaks down proteins in the stomach • Gastric lipase – breaks down fats in the stomach • Trypsin and erepsin – break down wholly and partially digested proteins into amino acids in the duodenum • Without enzymes, we would not be able to break down food into smaller subunits, and therefore would be unable to absorb nutrients 26

Digestive System Physical Vs. Chemical Digestion Physical Digestion Chemical Digestion • The breakdown of food by physical means, no chemical reactions involved • Physical digestion can separate food molecules, but cannot break down the molecules • Chewing food, using smooth muscle to move food down the digestive tract, and the churning of food within the stomach are all examples of physical digestion • The breakdown of food by chemical means, requiring chemical reactions (enzymes) • Breaks individual molecules apart • Breaking down protein, carbohydrate, and fat molecules are all examples of chemical digestion • Chemical digestion is needed to: • Make molecules small enough to pass through a cell membrane • Make nutrients soluble in water (blood) • Changes food into a form that is usable by the body 27

Digestive System Physical and Chemical Digestion • Though physical and chemical digestion differ on a molecular level, the principles are the same. • In both physical and chemical digestion, food is broken down into smaller pieces to allow for more efficient digestion • Physical digestion – breaks apart food particles to increase the surface area for chemical digestion • Chemical digestion – breaks food molecules into smaller molecules to allow for nutrient absorption into the bloodstream and ultimately into body cells 28

Digestive System Carbohydrate Digestion • Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth when the salivary glands secrete the enzyme salivary amylase • Majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small intestine. As food moves into the duodenum, pancreatic amylase is released into the small intestine. • Breaks down starch into disaccharides • The small intestine also contains sucrase, maltase, and lactase • Break the disaccharides into monosaccharides, which then enter the bloodstream and are transported to body cells 29

Digestive System Protein Digestion • Digestion of protein begins in the stomach when the stomach secretes gastric juices containing pepsinogen • As pepsinogen comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, it is converted into an active enzyme called pepsin • When protein reaches the duodenum, a hormone called cholecytokinin is released from the intestinal walls, stimulating the release of pancreatic juice • Pancreatic juice contains three inactive protein splitting enzymes • In the presence of the enzyme trypsin, the inactive enzymes in the pancreatic juice become activated and are able to help break down protein • Peptidase is released, which splits peptide bonds into amino acids, allowing for protein digestion • Digestion is completed in the small intestine. From there the amino acids travel to body cells through the bloodstream 30

Digestive System Lipid Digestion • Chemical digestion of lipids begins in the stomach • Gastric juices in the stomach contain small amounts of gastric lipase, which begins to break down certain lipids • As the lipids pass into the duodenum, the gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine via the common bile duct • The function of bile is to emulsify fats – to break them down into smaller droplets for more effective digestion • At the same time, pancreatic juices are released, containing pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase initiates the breaking down of lipids. • Intestinal lipase is released, which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol • Some fatty acids dissolve into the blood, while others are used by the liver in making lipoproteins 31

Digestive System Lactose Intolerance • People with lactose intolerance lack lactase in the small intestine • Lactase is the enzyme that breaks down lactose, the sugar found in milk products • Can be caused by digestive diseases or injuries to the small intestine • More than 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant • Symptoms -symptoms worsen when larger portions of milk products are consumed, include: • Cramping • Bloating • Gas • Diarrhea • Nausea • People with lactose intolerance may avoid symptoms by avoiding milk products or taking lactase supplements or lactase drops 32

Digestive System Stomach Ulcers • A stomach ulcer is a small erosion in the gastrointestinal tract. It most commonly occurs in the duodenum. • Caused by the destruction of the gastric or intestinal lining of the stomach by hydrochloric acid • Excess secretion of hydrochloric acid, genetic predisposition, and stress are all contributing factors • Chronic use of anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin may cause ulcers • Cigarette smoking can cause an ulcer formation and failure of ulcer treatment • Symptoms: • Burning or gnawing feeling in the stomach area • Loss of appetite • Weight loss or weight gain • Vomiting • Blood in the stool • Anemia 33

Digestive System Stomach Ulcers • Statistics • About 20 million Americans develop at least one stomach ulcer during their lifetime. • Stomach ulcers affect about 4 million Americans every year. • More than 40,000 Americans have surgery because of persistent symptoms or problems from ulcers every year. • About 6,000 Americans die of stomach ulcer-related complications every year. • Treatment • Medication to reduce stomach acid or to protect the lining of the stomach and duodenum • Antibiotics • In rare cases, surgery may be required to treat a peptic ulcer 34

Digestive System Digestive System Reference Page • Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 17 – Digestive System) • http://www.colostrumresearch.org/Studys/SO54_The%20Neonate%20and%20Colostrum.htm • http://www.hyss.sg/escience2/filestorage/2E%20-%20%20Digestion%20-%20Introduction.htm • http://www.foodallergysolutions.com/lactose-intolerance.html • http://www.mamashealth.com/stomach.asp 35

Digestive System Reference Page (continued) • Pictures: • http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=135514&ref=137320 • http://automatedaccess.org/rada-describe-human-digestive-system-with-diagram/ • http://www.empowher.com/condition/salivary-gland-infection • http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/essentials/yourLiver/ • http://health.allrefer.com/health/gallbladder-disease-gallbladder-anatomy.html • http://www.gastroliverspecialist.com/pancreatic_disease.html • http://www.thisismattjohnson.com/ • http://www.subent.com/expertise/salivaryglanddisease.htm • http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/cardshowall.php?title=respiratory-system_55 • http://genericlook.com/anatomy/Stomach/ • http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/pancreas.html • http://whydetox.net/liver-detoxification • http://www.gallbladderguy.com/gbfacts.html • http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/small-intestine 36

The Circulatory System 37

Circulatory System Circulatory System • The circulatory system has multiple functions: • Transporting materials • Transports gases (O2 and Co2) • Transports nutrients to cells • Transports waste materials from cells • Transports hormones • Contains white blood cells that fight infection • Maintains body temperature 38

Circulatory System Blood Vessel Structure & Function • Types of blood vessels: • Arteries – carry oxygenated blood away from the heart • Arterioles – small finely branched arteries • Capillaries – smallest, most numerous blood vessels • Veins– carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart • Venules – small branches of veins, merge to form veins 39

Circulatory System Structure Defines Function Arteries Veins • Function – carry oxygenated blood away from the heart and maintain blood pressure • Structure: • Strong and elastic, designed for carrying blood away from the heart under high pressure • Function – carry deoxygenated blood to heart, not under pressure • Structure: • Have thinner walls than arteries • Have a larger lumen than arteries (the lumen is the part of the blood vessel through which blood travels) 40

Circulatory System Vein Structure Vs. Artery Structure 41

Circulatory System Structure Defines Function Capillaries • Function – allow for exchange of nutrients and oxygen from red blood cells to body cells and exchange of waste products and carbon dioxide from body cells to red blood cells • Structure: • The smallest blood vessels • Have no smooth muscle fibers, unlike arteries and veins • Have thin walls that form a semipermeable layer through which substances are exchanged • Allow only one red blood cell through at a time to allow for efficient nutrient and gas exchange 42

Circulatory System 43

Circulatory System The Heart • The heart has four chambers, two atria and two ventricles • The atria are the smaller upper chambers • The ventricles are the larger lower chambers • The rightatrium and ventricle are located on the right side of the body, or the left side when shown in diagrams. The left atrium and ventricles are on the right side in diagrams. LEFT RIGHT 44

Human Body Systems