ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN

1. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN STUDENT NOTES 1

2. INTRODUCTION • History dates back to 6th century BCE • Legitimacy tied together by shared sense of nationalism (Persian) and Islamic roots (Shiism) • Politically, have experienced authoritarianism, democracy and theocracy • Currently challenges that shape the state: • constitutionalism/western style democracy at odds with deep Islamic roots • Relations with the west over nuclear capabilities • Complications over being a rentier state

3. Overview: The Big Picture • System of Government: Mixed Theocratic-Presidential System • Distribution of Power: Unitary System • Electoral System: two-round majority runoff • Constitution: Constitution of 1979 (formerly 1906) • Legislature: Unicameral—Majlis(Parliament, no PM) • Current Head of State: Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader • Head of Government: Hassan Rouhani, President (just reelected) • Major Political Parties: NO INSTITUTIONALIZED PARTY SYSTEM – Political factions: “conservatives/hardliners”, “pragmatists/moderates”, and “radicals/liberals” • Clerics = mostly hardliners; middle-class/urban/intellectuals = liberals

4. Fundamental Struggles • Theocracy v. democracy • Dualism and divisions • Sharia law is foundation of all Islamic civilization • Up for interpretation by clerics (highest religious officials) • Divided b/t conservative, moderates, reformists • Legitimacy rests in JURIST GUARDIANSHIP • In conflict when nation experiences hardships • Economic recession; abuse of CR/CL; civil society weakened • Oil…fluctuation of price, mismanagement • Relationship with “the west”

5. INTERPRETATIONS OF ISLAM

6. SHARIA LAW • Higher law, Islamic law, rule of law • Examples: • People have rights to property, life, legal system • Prohibition from alcohol • Death penalty for adultery, homosexuality, drug dealing, alcoholism • 2016 – 567 individuals put to death • Unequal legal treatment for men and women and Muslim’s and Non-Muslims • Is Islam compatible with democracy? Inalienable rights? Can Islam be altered to adapt to current societal conditions? • Human rights, women’s rights, political and press freedoms

7. “Islamic Republic of Iran is a limited democracy, wrapped in a military autocracy, inside a theocracy”

8. “Imagine if America was ruled for life by a Supreme Christian leader, always male, who was firmly backed by the U.S. military, Supreme Court, and American media, and presidential and congressional elections were only open to carefully vetted candidates who vowed not to challenge this framework.” • Noam Chomsky once wrote that “the smart way to keep people passive and obedient is to strictly limit the spectrum of acceptable opinion, but allow very lively debate within that spectrum.”

9. STYLE OF GOVERNMENT • Constitutional monarchy established with Constitution 1906 • Direct elections (Parliament/Majlis); Separation of powers; Bill of Rights – expression/rule of law) • Shiism official state religion – clerics still recognized for religious expertise w/ Guardian Council • New dynasty established with Pahlavis • Undermined democratic structures to create totalitarian state • Westernized society

10. RECENT TRENDS • 2009 protest after reelection of Ahmadinejad • Green Movement • 2013/17 election of Hassan Rouhani as President signaled desire for more openness to world • Negotiated the nuclear deal (Iran Deal) JCPOA • Enhanced some democratic features • Reform-minded newspapers reopened • Imprisoned journalists freed • 3G and 4G cell service expanded (tech-friendly gov) • Sanctions and unstable oil prices plague economy and legitimacy of state • Unemployment high, power outages, water shortages, rise in food costs, value of currency declining

11. CURRENT PROTESTS • On December 28, 2017, protests broke out in Mashhad, Iran’s second largest city, over economic hardships, corruption, and rising food and fuel prices. The initial protests were reportedly sparked by increases of up to 40 percent in staples, including eggs and poultry. Out of a population of 80 million people, about 3.2 million Iranians are jobless, with youth unemployment around 29 percent. The protests quickly morphed into anti-government demonstrations that spread to more than 80 cities. At least 20 people were killed and more than 3,000 arrested. The demonstrations were the largest challenge to the government since the 2009 Green Movement.

12. IRANIAN SANCTIONS • For the past decade (2012), the U.S., U.N., and other nations have used sanctions to target Iran's nuclear capabilities program. The U.N. specifically has since 2006 worked to isolate Iran from crucial gas and oil markets worldwide. Last year, the European Union adopted an oil embargo against Iran, which is costing the country $4 to $8 billion per month. Consequently, 2012 was a disastrous economic year for Tehran: Oil and gas exports provide roughly 50% of Iran's government revenue, but by October of last year, the country's oil exports had dropped by more than 40%. During the first week of that same month, the country saw its currency devalue by 40% from the previous week's value.

13. Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) aka Iran Deal - On July 14, 2015, Iran and the world's six major powers - Britain, China, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States - reached a final deal to limit Iran's nuclear activities in exchange for sanctions relief. The agreement was formally adopted on Oct. 18, 2015. It was implemented on Jan. 16, 2016, after the U.N. nuclear watchdog determined Iran had taken the necessary steps to scale back its nuclear program.

14. As a result of US sanctions •  Iran’s currency, the rial, has lost around 60 percent of its value against it against the dollar since 2011. • Declining oil exports are costing Iran up to $5 billion each month, or approximately $120 billion since 2008. • Iran has about $100 billion frozen in foreign banks that it has no access to because of banking sanctions. • Iran’s economy shrunk by five percent in 2012.

17. Since the nuclear deal was signed in 2015, economic growth has not translated into significant job creation. Unemployment in 2017 was 12.4 percent, up from 11 percent the year before, according to the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance. Unemployment in some cities is as high as 60 percent, according to Interior Minister Abdol-Reza RahmaniFazli. The situation is likely worse than reported because the government considers anyone who works for an hour a week as employed.  

18. The oil sector, the biggest part of Iran’s economy, is not labor-intensive, so increased oil sales has not produced a proportionate number of new jobs. The labor market has generally not expanded to keep pace with the youth bulge. More than half of Iran’s population is under age 30. Youth unemployment, between the ages of 15 to 24, was approximately 26.7 percent in 2017, according to the International Labour Organization.

21. IRAN’S “THEOCRACY” • Sovereignty rests with GOD alone • Therefore, laws of God take precedence over laws of man • BUT • There are elements of God’s sovereignty AND popular sovereignty in Iran • WHY? History, that’s why • Current Iranian state set up by Safavid dynasty in early 16th century • Made TwelverShiism official state religion – followers of Prophet Muhammad’s descendants aka Imams (political and religious leader) and ONLY the TWELFTH IMAM has LEGITIMATE rule over followers • Ulema (religious scholars) decided secular rulers were okay as long as they ruled in accordance w/ Islam

22. CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION • Constitution of 1906 • BIG PICTURE: • 1) reflect European democracies • Westernized GOVERNMENT NOT SOCIETY • 2) “rule by the people” more acceptable than Shah • Direct elections • Separation of powers • Laws made by elected legislature • Very strong – controlled cabinet members • Popular sovereignty • Bill of Rights • Retained Shiism as official religion

23. RISE OF REZA • 1921 - Reza Shah carried out coup d’etat • 4 years later named himself “shah-in-shah” (king of kings) • Constitution formally in place but NOT recognized • Changed name from Persia to Iran • Muhammad Reza Shah • Rise of the National Front (opposition) • Attempted to reestablish democratic institutions over Shah • Led by Muhammad Mosaddeq • Drew support from middle class • Emphasized Iranian nationalism and reducing role of British oil interests

24. ERODING DEMOCRACY • Mosaddeq advocated nationalizing the British owned-company that monopolized Iran’s oil business • Also wanted to take armed forces out from under shah’s control – should be controlled by Parliament • British and U.S. (CIA) orchestrated overthrow of Mosaddeq & restored shah to power…hmmm, I wonder why? • Political culture of Iran – EVERYTHING IS BLAMED ON A PLOT BY THE WEST • Firmly established RENTIER STATE • Exported oil and leased out fields

25. DEMISE OF THE SHAH • The Shah’s Downfall: • White Revolution – westernized society • Voting rights to women, reduced polygamy, women could work • Became very wealthy – set up fake funds to extort oil money • Ignored civil liberties • Stifled newspapers, political parties, and professional associations • By driving opponents underground he strengthened their cause and willingness to overthrow regime • Coupled w/ economic recession (prices rose 20%) • Alienated clergy, intellectuals, and urbanites (undermined civil society) • Ruhollah Khomeini arrested and exiled for political protest in 1963…returned in 1979 as revolutionary leader/most powerful person in Iran • Clergy organized protests and capitalized on multiple groups feeling discontent toward Shah

26. 1979 REVOLUTION • Causes • Shah perceived as being totalitarian • Iran too secular, too tied to West • Made religion a political force w/ goal of creating an ideal Islamic state • Struggling economy • Effects • Theocracy established • Sharia law • Fundamental Islam • Charismatic leader – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • Shah fled country in Feb 1979

27. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Who and Why? Iranian Revolutions • Who? Middle Class Urban Revolution! Led by clergy… • Coalition of intellectuals, university and high school students and teachers, bazaar merchants, politically active clerics and seminarians, industrial workers, and finally, state employees and white-collared workers • BIG PICTURE: diverse support for revolution led to current legitimacy issues/policy challenges • Why? Anti-Shah, Anti-USA • Despotism, corruption, and the alliances with the United States and Israel united such diverse ideological factions as liberal adherents to 1906 constitution, Marxist-Leninist leftists and Islamists

28. ISLAMIC REVOLUTION 1979 • Established regime based on Islamic fundamentalism • Jurist’s guardianship aka velayat-e faqih– shia term granting supreme authority to clergy b/c in the absence of God they know his teaching’s best w/some deference to constitutional tradition • NEW FORM OF LEGITIMACY (shared religion) • April 1979 national referendum was held – voted out monarchy established Islamic Republic • Established a new constitution w/ current dual structure • Ayatollah Khomeini (Supreme Leader)

29. CULTURAL REVOLUTION • Launched by Shia leaders after revolution • Aimed to purify the country from the shah’s regime, secular values, and western influences • Purged universities of liberals • Suppressed all opposition • Executions seen as “revolutionary justice”

30. IRAN-IRAQ WAR • 1980-1988 • The perfect thing for Ayatollah Khomeini • War = National Unity • Provoked by Saddam Hussein of Iraq • Allowed the regime to consolidate power by calling for national unity in the face of a foreign invader • The war became a means to suppress domestic discontent • US supported Saddam and Iraq with billions of dollars of military aide!

31. TIMELINE SINCE REVOLUTION • 1980-1988 --- War with Iraq • 1989 --- Khomeini dies; Khamenei succeeds him as Supreme Leader after a power struggle in the Assembly of Religious Experts • 1997 --- Reformist Khatami elected president • 2000 --- Reformist candidates win control of the Majlis • 2004 --- Conservatives regain control of Majlis, after 2,500 reformist candidates disqualified • 2005 --- Conservative Ahmadinejad elected president • 2009 --- Ahmadinejad reelected • 2013 --- Rouhani(moderate) elected president • 2017 --- Majles up to 7% women, • 2017 --- Rouhani re-elected • 2017 --- Majles up to 6% women, most since the revolution

32. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Tension: Between Islam and practical governance • Two types of institutions coexist: • Theocratic and democratic • Dualism reflects the attempted synthesis between divine and popular sovereignty institutions • Multiple Power Centers: • Institutions created by the revolutionaries to supplement the activities of the traditional state institutions, with which they share overlapping responsibilities • This further complicates the institutional structure of Iran

33. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Theocratic Institutions: • Supreme Leader • Guardian Council • Expediency Council • Democratic Institutions: • Assembly of Religious Experts • Majlis (Islamic Consultative Assembly) • President

35. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT THEOCRACY DEMOCRACY The president Popularly elected; 4 years; 2 terms; chief executive; usually clergy Assembly of Religious Experts “oversee” activities of SL Select new SL Majlis(parliament) Unicameral; lawmaking power, appointment/removal power; budget • Do not fit into 3 branch structure • Powers to supersede all other bodies • Supreme Leader – appointed for life, commander in chief, dismiss president, nomination/appointment • Ultimate power as head of state • Guardian Council – 12 clerics, review bills of Majlis, decide candidates • Vetting and veto • Expediency Council – collectively powerful; referee for GC and M; now originate own law

36. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Supreme Leader – most powerful political figure • Chosen by Assembly of Religious Experts (only tested once, in 1989) • Appointed for life • responsible for the delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran," which means that he sets the tone and direction of Iran's domestic and foreign policies • Eliminate presidential candidates • Dismissal of the president • Commander of the armed forces • Controls intelligence and security operations • Declares war and peace • Nominates up to 6 members to Guardian Council • Appoints and dismisses leaders of judiciary, state radio and TV networks • Field operatives sprinkled throughout state to intervene on behalf • Head of State with real power

37. PRESIDENT • President and Cabinet • Head of government – 2nd highest ranking official • Not a president system – not as powerful as most presidents • Only state where president is not commander in chief • Elected every 4 years by voters, may serve 2 terms • Majority system w. runoff • Candidates approved by Guardian Council (vetting) • Constitution requires him to be a “pious Shiite” • Powers • Devise the budget • “Supervise” economic matters • Propose legislation to the Majlis • Executing the law/policies • Signs treaties and laws • Chairs the National Security Council • Appoints cabinet and other provincial officials • There are 8 VP’s – I have no idea why you even need 1, let alone 8…

38. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • President Mohammad Khatami (1997-2005) • Reformist and surprise winner • Easier to organize political groups • Less censorship of press • Tried to improve relations with US and other Western countries • Reformist Khatami was left isolated by conservative resurgence • Hard line conservatives disqualified moderates from 2004 parliamentary elections

39. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005-2013) • Tehran's ultra-conservative mayor • Won a run-off vote in presidential elections in June 2005, defeating his rival, the former president Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani • First non-cleric president in 24 years

40. President Ahmadinejad (2005-2013) • Council of Guardians rejected candidacies of popular reformers • Several major reformist newspapers closed • Journalists and civil society activists arrested • Jailed internet users who spread information “aimed at disturbing the public mind” • Morality police and vigilantes to enforce Islamic dress codes & prevent public mingling of men and women • Increasing reports of arrest, torture, and executions • Sharia more strictly enforce • Called for destruction of Israel • Questioned reality of Holocaust • Increased nuclear fuel research

41. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Legislature – The Majlis • NOT RUBBER STAMP – they debate and do other stuff • Pass laws with approval of Guardian Council • Interpret legislation, without contradiction of judiciary • Approve 6 members to Guardian Council nominated by Chief Judge • Investigate misconduct of bureaucracy and judiciary • Remove cabinet officials (not the president) • Approve the budget, cabinet, treaties, and loans

44. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • 290 deputies, 4 year terms • Five guaranteed seats for recognized religious minorities: Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians • Nonrecognized religious minorities (e.g., Baha’is) cannot run • Direct Elections • Elections held on a nonpartisan basis (ballots do not have party identification or philosophy) • 28 multimember districts (based on population size)

45. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Guardian Council • 12 male clerics, serve 6 year terms • 6 appointed by Supreme Leader • 6 nominated by Supreme Judicial Council (who are appointed by SL), approved by Majles • Review bills passed by Majles to ensure they comply with the sharia • Power to VETO any legislations passed by Majlis that is at odds with basic tenants of Islam • Referred by for revision • Vetting power - May disqualify candidates for election as part of their jurist guardianship (along with Supreme Leader)

46. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Expediency Council • Created by Khomeini to referee disputes between Guardian Council and Majlis (mediator) • Members appointed by Supreme Leader • Has gained the power to originate legislation • Collection of the most powerful men in Iran, including: • High ranking clerics • President • Chief Judge • Speaker of Majles • Members of the Guardian Council

47. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Assembly of Religious Experts • 86 men elected by the people every 8 years • Meet one week each year • Have been described as rubber stamp • Use to only allow clerics, but requirement eliminated in 1998 • Candidates may still be rejected by Guardian Council • With Supreme Leader and Guardian Council, in charge of constitutional interpretation • Choose a successor to the Supreme Leader, and may remove him as well

48. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Judiciary – not independent • Supreme leader appoints head of judiciary who appoints senior judges • Types of law in Iran • Sharia – Islamic law, supersedes all other laws, chiefly interpreted by Supreme Leader • Qanun – No sacred basis, just statutes made by legislative bodies (Majles, for example) • Must not contradict sharia • No judicial review – legal authority is not in the constitution, but in interpretation of sharia • Appeals system is in place, but Khomeini argued spirit of sharia was for local judges to make final decisions in most cases • Sharia dictates harsh punishments (death) for a wide variety of “crimes”, but Islamic Republic has softened the use of these over the years

49. INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERMENT • Military • Revolutionary Guard – created by Khomeini to counter the Shah’s existing regular army, navy, and air force • Strong political influence, increasingly independent • 125,000 people • Army defends the borders, Revolutionary Guard protects the Islamic Republic • All commanded by Supreme Leader, who appoints top commanders • No fear of coup: • Military respects orderly transfer of power • Most former members now members of elected bodies • Loyal to supreme leader

50. Head of IRGC political bureau: • “If the duty of the Guard is to counter threats, it does not make any difference what the nature of the threat is. If we say the duty of the Guard Corps is only military confrontation, then the Guard Corps can no longer be expected to guard and protect the Islamic Revolution. But if according to the Constitution we consider the mission and philosophy of the Guard Corps is to be guarding the Islamic revolution and its gains, obviously the Guard Corps must have all of the necessary mechanisms for countering any threat, whether military or civilian.”