The Islamic Republic of Iran

1. The Islamic Republic of Iran Death to Everything!

2. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Existed sovereignly early on as the Achemenian Empire (called Persia by rival Greece) • Centralized military leadership • Set the stage for “West vs. East” themes in history • Alexander the Great conquered both, but left Persian political structure in place • Kings acceded to the throne based on heredity • State sponsored religion - Zoroastrianism

3. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Importance of Shiism • Invaded by Arabs regularly from 7th through 16th centuries, bringing Islam to the region • Religion became the “glue” holding Persians together • Shia/Sunni Divide (7th Century) • Muhammad died without designating an heir • Sunnis wanted the caliph to succeed (Caliphs were heads of the designated leadership, called the Sunni) • Shiites wanted a hereditary heir of Muhammad to succeed (Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali) • Ali was killed, Shia became a minority, believing heirs of Ali (imams) were the true carriers of Islam • 12th Decendent disappeared as a child, leading to the legend of a “Hidden Imam” – will return to establish Islamic rule again

4. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Modern Sources of Legitimacy • Pahlavi Shahs of the 20th Century (1925-1979) • Attempted secularization of the state • Opposed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • Revolution of 1979 • Led by Khomeini to reestablish Islamic state • Constitution of 1979, plus amendments of 1989 • Complex mixture of theocracy and democracy • Affirms Qur’an, Muhammad, the Twelve Imams, and the Hidden Imam in the Preamble • Qom and Jurist Guardianship • Qom – city south of Tehran where seminary clerics are based • Jurist Guardianship – idea that clergy has responsibility for all of Shia society

5. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Supreme Leader of Iran, 1979-1989

6. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

7. Political Culture • Authoritarian, but not totalitarian • Union of political and religious authority • Shiism and Sharia as central components of the law • The sharia – Islamic law as expounded in the Koran • Escape from European colonization (no real impact on Iran) • Geographic limitations – mostly unusable for agriculture, causing early Persians to conquer other lands • Influence of ancient Persia

8. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Safavids (1501-1722) • Safavid empire converted 90% of their subjects to Shiism • Respected/tolerated other monotheistic “People of the Book”: Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians • Lacked economic resources to exert full control, relied on local rulers to keep order • Most clerics were outside the reach of the government, state fragmented by 1722

9. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Qajars (1794-1925) • Turks who conquered Persia long after an Afghan invasion ended the Safavid empire • Moved capital to Tehran, kept Shiism as state religion • Could NOT claim to be descendents of the Twelve Imams (as Safavids had), leading to growth in separation of government and religion • Sold oil drilling rights to many Western countries

10. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Qajars (1794-1925) • Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 • Shah had led the country into massive debt, but lived lavishly • Business owners and bankers feared Shah would forgo paying domestic debts to repay European loans • They demanded for a written Constitution, encouraged by the British who didn’t think the Shah could put down a rebellion

11. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Qajars (1794-1925) • Constitution of 1906 • Direct elections of a legislature (Majles) • Bill of Rights guaranteeing equality under the law, criminal protections, freedom of expression • Shiism still the state religion, with a Guardian Council of clerics that could veto any legislation of the Majles

12. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Pahlavis (1925-1979) • Colonel Reza Khan carried out a coup against the state in 1921, becoming shah in 1925 • Reduced power of Majles • Turned over power to son, Muhammad Reza Shah in 1941 • Opposed by communist Tudeh (masses) Party and National Front led by Muhammad Mosaddeq • Iran becomes a rentier state, collecting payments from Western countries for oil drilling rights • Importance: government doesn’t need to collect taxes to fund activities, thus, doesn’t need the people!

13. Colonel Reza Khan, a.k.a. Reza Shah Pahlavi Shah, 1925-1941

14. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi Shah, 1941-1979

15. Mohammad Mossadeq Prime Minister of Iran, 1951-1953

16. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • The Pahlavis (1925-1979) • White Revolution (1963) • Attempt to remove “red” (communist) influences • Land reform – government buys unused land, sells to small farmers at low prices • Extended voting rights to women, restricted polygamy, allowed women to work outside the home • The Resurgence Party and “Pahlavi Foundation” (1970s) • Shah disbanded other parties, declared Iran a one-party state • Replaced the Islamic calendar, and called himself “Guide to the New Great Civilization” and “Light of the Aryans” • Creates a religious corps to teach peasants “true Islam”

17. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979-Present) • Religiously motivated, results in a theocratic state • Ingredients: • Shah behaving as a totalitarian, not just authoritarian • Shah secularized Iran too quickly against the will of the clergy • Ties to the West offended nationalists and clergy • Charismatic leader – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini • Quick drop in oil prices combined with high inflation in Iran

18. Political and Economic Change • 4 Eras: • Islamic Revolution and the Republic (1979-Present) • National referendum in April 1979 voted to end the monarchy and establish an Islamic Republic • Assembly of Religious Experts (clerics directly elected by the people) chosen to draft a Constitution • Approved in a plebiscite by 99% of voters • Cultural Revolution – purify the country of secular and Western values and behaviors • Removed many professors from universities • Executions in the name of “revolutionary justice”

19. The Shah asked Iraq to deport Khomeini, so they sent him to Paris. Khomeini now had better access to the media and telecommunications.

20. 2 million demonstrators strike and take to the streets of Tehran in response to the Shah’s ban on public demonstrations in 1978.

21. Khomeini returns from exile

22. Political and Economic Change • One Theory on the Cause of the Revolution – Theory of Rising Expectations • As people’s standard of living rises, their expectation for future growth rises as well • The gap between their expectations and reality can be tolerable, but become “intolerable” if actual standard of living drops

24. Political and Economic Change • Post-Khomeini (1989-Present) • Cementing of the powers of the clerics • Rebound in oil prices, improved economy (government aid for housing and medical clinics) • Invasion of Iraq in 1980-1989, people rallied behind government • Khomeini’s charismatic authority • Succession of Ali Khamenei • Lacked charisma, academic credentials of Khomeini • Drop in world oil prices • Subsequent decades of conflict between reformists and conservatives

25. Citizens, Society, and the State • Cleavages • Religion • Almost 90% Shia, 10% Sunni, around 1% either Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian, or Baha’I • Constitution of 1979 recognizes and respects the rights of religious minorities, though Jews, Christians, and Baha’i are often persecuted • Constitution does not mention Sunnis

26. Citizens, Society, and the State • Cleavages • Ethnicity • 51% Persian, speaking Persian (Farsi) • 24% Azeri, concentrated in the Northwest • Shiia, but don’t speak Farsi (Khamenei is Azeri) • Fear of Iranian government that they may want to unite with Azerbaijan • 7% Kurdish, 3% Arab (both Sunnis)

27. Arab Persian Azeri Kurdish

28. Citizens, Society, and the State • Cleavages • Social class • Peasantry and lower middle class support the regime, having benefited from its programs • Middle and upper class people tend to be secularized and critical of the clerics • Haven’t done well economically since the Revolution • Reformers vs. Conservatives • Reformers want secularization, democracy, open relations with the West • Conservatives want to preserve the clerical and sharia regime

29. Civil Society • Pre-Revolution – people were dissatisfied with governments intrusion into private lives in civil society • Post-Revolution – hasn’t changed much! • Many professionals leave the country • Exception – “Tehran Spring” under president Khatami (1997-2005) • Cautious political liberalization, loosening of speech and press rights, friendlier stance to West • Reversed by Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, reinstituted by Hassan Rouhani • Iran has a VERY young population! • Regime encouraged large families in its first years • Goods were rationed per capita, making it better to have more children • 60% under 30

30. Muhammad Khatami President of Iran, 1997-2005

31. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad President of Iran, 2005 - 2013

32. Hassan Rouhani President of Iran, 2013 - Present

33. Political Participation • Post 1979 – many newspapers, labor unions, private organizations, and political parties forced to close • Protests and Demonstrations • Banned, but still occur regularly in cities and universities • Most economic in nature, but 2009 election led to calls for democratization

34. Political Participation • Women and the Political System • “The Veil” – required in public by regime, symbolizes oppression to westerners, but not so much to Iranian women • 20th century Iranian women have had better access to education than other Mid-East countries • About half of university students are women • Law towards women is “equality with difference” • sharia is interpreted to favor males in divorce and custody disputes • cannot leave the country without the consent of male relatives • Women are about 33% of the labor force • Women rarely get elected to the Majles (4.1%)

35. Linkage Institutions • Political Parties • Constitution allows them, but government didn’t until 1997 • Highly unstable party system, changes around personalities – coalitions form and break apart regularly - but in the last election: • Moderation and Development Party – Hassan Rouhani’s reformist party, won 50.8% in first round • Islamic Society of Engineers – formerly party of Ahmadinejad’s conservative party, but broke off in 2009. Supported Mohammad BagherGhalibaf in 2013 and won 16% of the vote • Many other minor competitors in presidential and Majles elections

36. Mir-Hossein Mousavi Candidate for President, 2009 Leader of the Green Movement Many Iranians perceived his loss in 2009 to be a “stolen election”

37. Linkage Institutions • Elections • Suffrage for all over 18 to vote for president, Majles, and Assembly of Experts • Majles is a first-past-the-post plurality system, no PR • Presidential is a 2-round majority system • Interest Groups • Tough to draw the line between these and parties in Iran • Labor is organized, but business is not, given that government controls 65-80% of the economy

38. Linkage Institutions • Mass Media • 1981 Majles passed a law making it a crime to use “pen and speech” against the government • Restrictions lifted from time to time, but reimposed when demonstrations pose a problem to the regime • Government owns radio and television broadcasting, but newspapers and magazines are typically privately owned

39. State Institutions • Political system fuses theocracy and democracy in a unitary state • Theocratic Institutions: • Supreme Leader • Guardian Council • Expediency Council • Democratic Institutions: • Assembly of Religious Experts • Majles • President

41. State Institutions • Supreme Leader • Chosen by Assembly of Religious Experts (only tested once, in 1989) • The faqih – leading Islamic jurist to interpret religious documents and the sharia • Powers • Eliminate presidential candidates • Dismissal of the president • Commander of the armed forces • Declares war and peace • Appoints many administrators and judges • Nominates up to 6 members to Guardian Council • Appoints heads of other agencies, like broadcasters • Head of State with real power

42. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei Supreme Leader of Iran, 1989-Present

43. State Institutions • Guardian Council • 12 male clerics • 6 appointed by Supreme Leader • 6 nominated by Chief Judge, approved by Majles • Review bills passed by Majles to ensure they comply with the sharia • May disqualify candidates for election as part of their jurist guardianship (along with Supreme Leader)

44. State Institutions • Assembly of Religious Experts • 86 men elected by the people every 4 years • Use to only allow clerics, but requirement eliminated in 1998 • Candidates may still be rejected by Guardian Council • With Supreme Leader and Guardian Council, in charge of constitutional interpretation • Choose a successor to the Supreme Leader, and may remove him as well • Chairman is currently Mohammad-Reza MahdaviKani

45. The Assembly of Experts

46. Mohammad Reza Mahdavi Kani Chairman of the Assembly of Experts, 2011 - Present

47. State Institutions • Expediency Council • Created by Khomeini to referee disputes between Guardian Council and Majles • Started smaller, has grown to 32 members • Has gained the power to originate legislation • Collection of the most powerful men in Iran, including: • High ranking clerics • President • Chief Judge • Speaker of Majles • Members of the Guardian Council • Headed by Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani

48. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani President of Iran, 1989-1997 Chairman of the Expediency Council, 1988-Present Chairman of the Assembly of Experts, 2007-2011 Pragmatic conservative

49. State Institutions • President and Cabinet • Head of government • Elected every 4 years by voters, may serve 2 terms • Constitution requires him to be a “pious Shiite” • Powers • Devise the budget • “Supervise” economic matters • Propose legislation to the Majles • Executing the law/policies • Signs treaties and laws • Chairs the National Security Council • Appoints cabinet and other provincial officials

50. State Institutions • Bureaucracy • Expanded rapidly to create places for college graduates to work (size doubled since 1979) • Examples of new ministries: • Culture and Islamic Guidance – censures the media • Intelligence – chief security organization • Heavy Industry – manages nationalized factories • Reconstruction – spreads Islam to the countryside • Dominated by clergy and their relatives