world view

1. World View The means by which the potential chaos of the world is ordered and evaluated. Francis Luckman notes that there is an inner core to every world view, a Sacred Cosmos, which is an evaluation of an a response to the mysterious or inexplicable. The �symbols which represent the reality of the sacred cosmos � perform, in a specific and concentrated way, the broad religious function of the world view as a whole.�

3. Anthropocentric Man is at the center of the religious drama. Man has the power to manipulate and channel the various persons, beings and forces as well as be used by them. No clear demarcation between the sacred and secular world. Power is morally neutral.

4. Causality Nothing Bad happens by chance. Lesser gods can be benevolent or malevolent� on the personal, communal, environmental, and cosmic level. Balance is the goal. Wrongness is that which is in opposition to traditional, communal, or the established order. There are no individuals� all are linked to kin groups (past and present).

5. Priests Professionals who deal with the spirit world through carefully enacted rituals. Diviniation. Cleansing ceremonies. Sacrificial offerings. Identification of source of malevolent energy.

6. Cults Various gods and dieties have cults. Novitiates �die� during lengthy initiation period involving fasting and the persons removal from society. Learns a secret language and knowledge. Resurrected in a public ceremony. Initiates serve as mediums of the gods through spirit possession.

7. Spirit Possession Ritual creation of sacred space and time which enables a conjoining of the sacred and the secular realms in the body of the initiated. Often referred to as �mounting� or being �ridden� by the divinity.

8. Language Model for Development of Sacred Cosmos First generation: world views coalesce; creole speakers Second generation: contradiction to European world view; native born; English speakers Third generation: difficulty maintaining both world views; little contact with Africans; English� receptive to creation of an Afro-Christian world view

9. Haiti 894,000 slaves imported into French colony. 480,000 at time of Revolution in 179. African Sacred Cosmos was reinvigorated with the continuous importation of slaves.

10. Voodou Animal Sacrifice to Ougou Feray, God of War and Iron

11. Voodou Imported from Haiti following Revolution Complete religious system of beliefs and practices. Syncretic with Catholicism. Found home in Catholic (French & Spanish) New Orleans. Large Free Black urban & rural population. Covert White toleration

12. Maria Laveau Believed to have been born in New Orleans in 1794 and died in New Orleans on June 15th, 1881. The daughter of a white man, Charles Laveau and Darcantel Marguerite, a mulatto with Indian blood, Marie was a tall� woman, with black hair, dark skin that had a distinct reddish cast, and fierce black eyes.� On August 4, 1819, Marie married Jacques Paris in St. Louis Cathedral.� Their contract of marriage can still be found in the files there.� Shortly after the wedding, Jacques disappeared.� A record of his death did not appear until several years after he had been gone.� A few years after becoming a widow, Louis Christophe Duminy de Glapion moved into Maries home and lived there until he died in 1835.� He and Marie had fifteen children. Marie became the Voodoo Queen of New Orleans sometime during the 1830's.� She became the most famous and powerful voodoo queen in the world, so powerful that she acclaimed herself the Pope of Voodoo. Believed to have been born in New Orleans in 1794 and died in New Orleans on June 15th, 1881. The daughter of a white man, Charles Laveau and Darcantel Marguerite, a mulatto with Indian blood, Marie was a tall� woman, with black hair, dark skin that had a distinct reddish cast, and fierce black eyes.� On August 4, 1819, Marie married Jacques Paris in St. Louis Cathedral.� Their contract of marriage can still be found in the files there.� Shortly after the wedding, Jacques disappeared.� A record of his death did not appear until several years after he had been gone.� A few years after becoming a widow, Louis Christophe Duminy de Glapion moved into Maries home and lived there until he died in 1835.� He and Marie had fifteen children. Marie became the Voodoo Queen of New Orleans sometime during the 1830's.� She became the most famous and powerful voodoo queen in the world, so powerful that she acclaimed herself the Pope of Voodoo.

13. Congo Square Town's folk would gather around the square on Sunday afternoons to witness what went on inside the square. In 1819, a visitor to the city, Benjamin Latrobe wrote about the celebrations in his journal. He was amazed at the sight of five or six hundred unsupervised slaves that had assembled for dancing. He described them as ornamented with a number of tails of the smaller wild beasts, with fringes, ribbons, little bells, and shells and balls, jimgling and flirting about the performers legs and arms. The women, one onlooker reported wore, each according to her means, the newest fashions in silk, gauze, muslin, percale dresses. And the males covered themselves in oriental and Indian dress and covered themselves only with a sash of the same sort wrapped around the body.. except for that they go naked. One witness from the time pointed out that several clusters of onlookers, musicians, and dancers represented tribal groupings with each nation taking their place in different parts of the square. In addition to drums, gourds, banjo-like instruments and quillpipes made from reeds strung together like panpipes, marimbas and european instuments like the violin, tamborines and triangles were also used. Town's folk would gather around the square on Sunday afternoons to witness what went on inside the square. In 1819, a visitor to the city, Benjamin Latrobe wrote about the celebrations in his journal. He was amazed at the sight of five or six hundred unsupervised slaves that had assembled for dancing. He described them as ornamented with a number of tails of the smaller wild beasts, with fringes, ribbons, little bells, and shells and balls, jimgling and flirting about the performers legs and arms. The women, one onlooker reported wore, each according to her means, the newest fashions in silk, gauze, muslin, percale dresses. And the males covered themselves in oriental and Indian dress and covered themselves only with a sash of the same sort wrapped around the body.. except for that they go naked.

14. Elizabeth Catlett

15. Hoodoo/Conjure Dependent upon the practitioner Not an independent system of beliefs/practices European and African origins (mutually interactive) Keith Thomas: periods of astrology, witchcraft, magical healing, divination, ancient prophecy, ghosts and farrie taken seriously by both elites and common people until late 17th century� then a rapid decline.Keith Thomas: periods of astrology, witchcraft, magical healing, divination, ancient prophecy, ghosts and farrie taken seriously by both elites and common people until late 17th century� then a rapid decline.

16. Gris Gris Bag

17. Slave Burial

18. Who�s the Thief? Caption, �Negro superstition, the Doo di Doo bush, or which is the thief.� �This is a kind of ordeal . . . among the Negroes, for extorting a confession of guilt from persons suspected of theft or other crime .. . . The ceremony is conducted with much solemnity. The injured party communicates his suspicions to the Dadie (as the reputed sorcerer is called), who appoints a time for the trial. A refusal of the suspected person to accept the challenge is considered an admission of guilt. . . . The Dadie twists a band out of the branches of a common shrub, at intervals sprinkling salt on it, and accompanying the operation with some incantation . . . . thus formed, it is passed round the neck of the supposed culprit, who is then called upon to clear himself by oath of the imputed crime. The Negroes . . .. believe that if they perjure themselves .. . the band would remain immovably twisted round the neck, and, by gradually tightening itself, ring from the party an acknowledgment of his guilt . . . . the sketch here given was taken from a scene which passed under the eye of the author� (Bridgens). Black/white images are found in other copies of Bridgens (e.g., The Library of Congress [LC-USZ62-115853], Providence Athaneum).Caption, �Negro superstition, the Doo di Doo bush, or which is the thief.� �This is a kind of ordeal . . . among the Negroes, for extorting a confession of guilt from persons suspected of theft or other crime .. . . The ceremony is conducted with much solemnity. The injured party communicates his suspicions to the Dadie (as the reputed sorcerer is called), who appoints a time for the trial. A refusal of the suspected person to accept the challenge is considered an admission of guilt. . . . The Dadie twists a band out of the branches of a common shrub, at intervals sprinkling salt on it, and accompanying the operation with some incantation . . . . thus formed, it is passed round the neck of the supposed culprit, who is then called upon to clear himself by oath of the imputed crime. The Negroes . . .. believe that if they perjure themselves .. . the band would remain immovably twisted round the neck, and, by gradually tightening itself, ring from the party an acknowledgment of his guilt . . . . the sketch here given was taken from a scene which passed under the eye of the author� (Bridgens). Black/white images are found in other copies of Bridgens (e.g., The Library of Congress [LC-USZ62-115853], Providence Athaneum).

19. Salem Witch Trial 1692 Slaves were thought to have knowledge of poison, spells, charms, totems, diviners, fortune tellers etc�Slaves were thought to have knowledge of poison, spells, charms, totems, diviners, fortune tellers etc�

20. A quasi-African world view in America West African people did not have one Sacred Cosmos�However for the study of American blacks, one of the significant questions is to what extent blacks shared values and understandings prior to their forced removal from Africa. This brief overview of African world views suggests that there was the potential for the creation of a quasi-African world view in America.

21. Important Dates 1664, �Durante vita� drawn up by the lower house of Maryland. Act declared baptism would not alter the civil status of Christian slaves. By early 18th c six colonial legislatures pass similar acts 1693 Cotton Mather establishes the Society of Negroes in Boston (one of the first efforts to convert Africans in America.

22. 1701, Cotton Mather �The Negro Christianized� Oh that our neighbors would consider the incomparable benefits that would follow upon your endevours to Christianize your Negroes, Oh the consolation that would belong to you. Your Negroes are immediately raised unto an astonishing felicity. They are become amiable spectacles such as Angles of God would repair to the windows to look down upon. Tho� they remain your servants, yet are they become the children of God. Tho� they enjoy no earthly goods, but the small allowance that your justice and bounty shall seem proper for them. Oh what you have done for them! Happy Masters! It will not be long before you and they come together in the heavenly city and you hear them forever blessing the gracious God for the day when he first made them our servants.

23. Phyllis Wheatley Phyllis Wheatley, a well known published poet of the era and a former slave. A native of Senegal in Africa, Wheatley was captured around age seven, brought to Boston and sold to John Wheatley, a tailor, whose surname she was given. After learning the Bible and English literature she began to write religious and moral poems.Phyllis Wheatley, a well known published poet of the era and a former slave. A native of Senegal in Africa, Wheatley was captured around age seven, brought to Boston and sold to John Wheatley, a tailor, whose surname she was given. After learning the Bible and English literature she began to write religious and moral poems.

24. Oloduah Equiano orGustav Vasa Oil portrait by unidentified painter is hanging in the Royal Albert Museum, Exeter, Devon, England. The Museum identifies the subject as Olaudah Equiano, although he may be, in fact, Ottobah Cugoano. For details, see Jerome S. Handler, Survivors of the Middle Passage: Life Histories of Enslaved Africans in British America, Slavery & Abolition, vol. 23 (2000), pp. 25-56. Oil portrait by unidentified painter is hanging in the Royal Albert Museum, Exeter, Devon, England. The Museum identifies the subject as Olaudah Equiano, although he may be, in fact, Ottobah Cugoano. For details, see Jerome S. Handler, Survivors of the Middle Passage: Life Histories of Enslaved Africans in British America, Slavery & Abolition, vol. 23 (2000), pp. 25-56.

25. Oloudah Equiano This portrait of Olaudah Equiano was used as the frontispiece (illustration opposite a book's title page) of his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African (1789). In its introduction, Equiano states that the main purpose of the book is to "excite in [the reader's] august assemblies a sense of compassion of the miseries which the Slave-Trade has entailed on my unfortunate countrymen." The book succeeded dramatically in this regard, since it offered a vivid first-hand account of an individual born in Africa and abducted into the slave trade. One of England's abolitionists said that Equiano was of "more use to the Cause than half the People of the country."This portrait of Olaudah Equiano was used as the frontispiece (illustration opposite a book's title page) of his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African (1789).

26. Lemuel Hayes Lemuel Haynes (b. July 18, 1754 in West Hartford, Connecticut. d. September 28, 1833, probably in Granville, New York), a patriot during the American Revolutionary War, understood the meaning of freedom. Abandoned as child by his Anglo mother and African father, Lemuel was raised on a farm in Massachusetts. He worked on the farm by day and spent time learning and studying in front of the fireplace at night. Lemuel was an indentured servant, which means he was able to earn his freedom by working for a number of years. When Lemuel became a free man at age 21 in 1774, one of his first choices was to join freedom's cause and serve in a military unit from Connecticut. More than 5,000 African soldiers � both slave and free � fought in the American Revolutionary War. Lemuel not only fought on the battlefield, but he also wrote about freedom in poems and essays. Lemuel was inspired by the Declaration of Independence, and in 1776 he wrote an essay about the need to extend freedom to Africans. His essay was called, �Liberty Further Extended.� After the American Revolutionary War, Lemuel returned to Massachusetts, where he studied Latin and Greek and taught school. He became a preacher and spent the next 50 years pasturing churches. Five of the churches he served included Anglo members. Many of Lemuel�s sermons were published during his lifetime, and the presidents of Yale University and Amherst College often sought his advice. He also received an honorary degree from Middlebury College.Lemuel Haynes (b. July 18, 1754 in West Hartford, Connecticut. d. September 28, 1833, probably in Granville, New York), a patriot during the American Revolutionary War, understood the meaning of freedom. Abandoned as child by his Anglo mother and African father, Lemuel was raised on a farm in Massachusetts. He worked on the farm by day and spent time learning and studying in front of the fireplace at night. Lemuel was an indentured servant, which means he was able to earn his freedom by working for a number of years. When Lemuel became a free man at age 21 in 1774, one of his first choices was to join freedom's cause and serve in a military unit from Connecticut. More than 5,000 African soldiers � both slave and free � fought in the American Revolutionary War. Lemuel not only fought on the battlefield, but he also wrote about freedom in poems and essays. Lemuel was inspired by the Declaration of Independence, and in 1776 he wrote an essay about the need to extend freedom to Africans. His essay was called, �Liberty Further Extended.� After the American Revolutionary War, Lemuel returned to Massachusetts, where he studied Latin and Greek and taught school. He became a preacher and spent the next 50 years pasturing churches. Five of the churches he served included Anglo members. Many of Lemuel�s sermons were published during his lifetime, and the presidents of Yale University and Amherst College often sought his advice. He also received an honorary degree from Middlebury College.

27. Anglicanism Religious System reinforced the social boundaries of planter, worker and slave No rebirth in Holy Spirit. Reduction of sacred ritual to symbolic acts. Emphasis upon education (literacy). Limited missionary work among slaves. Tenuous socio-economic status of priest.

28. St. James

29. Act for Encouraging the Importation of Negro and Slaves,Maryland 1671 �The Truth is, there is a general indifference in churchmen, as well as in those of other sentiments, to make proselytes of their slaves; the true cause whereof is want of zeal in Masters, and the untoward haughty behavior of those Negroes who have been admitted into the fellowship of Christ�s religion.�

30. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts Founded by Thomas Bray, former Commissioner of Maryland, Bishop of London in 1701. Main arm of Anglican missionary work in North America. Attracted well-educated, successful men. Baptism, but little beyond allowed in most areas. Some important literacy work.

31. Thomas Bray

32. Competing World Views Two Solutions: White magic more powerful than African, or Somehow able to diffuse African magic

33. John Wesleyhomo uni libris John graduated from Oxford University, entered the ministry, traveled as a missionary to the Georgia colony in America in 1735, and returned to England, while still unconverted. Later, an admirer of Wesley said that "if John Wesley was not a good Christian in Georgia, God help the millions who profess to call themselves Christians." But, God met John Wesley one evening in a meeting of a religious society on Aldersgate Street on May 14, 1738. When someone read Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley reflected that he felt his heart "strangely warmed". John graduated from Oxford University, entered the ministry, traveled as a missionary to the Georgia colony in America in 1735, and returned to England, while still unconverted. Later, an admirer of Wesley said that "if John Wesley was not a good Christian in Georgia, God help the millions who profess to call themselves Christians." But, God met John Wesley one evening in a meeting of a religious society on Aldersgate Street on May 14, 1738. When someone read Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley reflected that he felt his heart "strangely warmed".

34. Thoughts Upon Slavery, 1774 Perhaps you will say, "I do not buy any Negroes; I only use those left me by my father." So far is well; but is it enough to satisfy your own conscience? Had your father, have you, has any man living, a right to use another as a slave? It cannot be, even setting Revelation aside. It cannot be, that either war, or contract, can give any man such a property in another as he has in his sheep and oxen. Much less is it possible, that any child of man should ever be born a slave. Liberty is the right of every human creature, as soon as he breathes the vital air; and no human law can deprive him of that right which he derives from the law of nature. ���If, therefore, you have any regard to justice, (to say nothing of mercy, nor the revealed law of God,) render unto all their due. Give liberty to whom liberty is due, that is, to every child of man, to every partaker of human nature. Let none serve you but by his own act and deed, by his own voluntary choice. Away with all whips, all chains, all compulsion! Be gentle toward all men; and see that you invariably do unto every one as you would he should do unto you. John WesleyJohn Wesley

35. T.U.L.I.P. Total Depravity of Man Unconditional Election Limited Atonement Irresistible Grace Perserverance of the Saints Total depravity is the extensive ruin of man's nature.� Man is made up of two parts primarily: the material (body) and the immaterial (soul). Predestiniation. Christ died only for those limited few who were preordained. Chosen, one cannot resist the grace of God. Sinners may continue to sin and reject the spirit. Total depravity is the extensive ruin of man's nature.� Man is made up of two parts primarily: the material (body) and the immaterial (soul). Predestiniation. Christ died only for those limited few who were preordained. Chosen, one cannot resist the grace of God. Sinners may continue to sin and reject the spirit.

36. First Great Awakening Reintroduces the penetrating power of the Holy in the Protestant tradition. Augustinian piety Methodists and Arminian or General Baptists Reject infant baptism and open communion. Adult regeneration.

37. Jonathan Edwards "A Faithful Narrative of the Surprizing Work of God" (1736) was Edwards own account of his first revival at Northampton, Massachusetts. In 1740, George Whitefield, in one of his many trips from England, aided in the spread of this Great Awakening among the American colonies. Because Jonathan Edwards insisted that the members of his church needed to have a clear foundation of conversion to Christ, the dissenting church members removed him as their pastor in 1750. But, the "LORD is able to give thee much more than this" (2Chronicles 25:9); and, Edwards proceeded to Stockbridge, Massachusetts where he conducted missionary work with the remnant of the Mohican Indians. "A Faithful Narrative of the Surprizing Work of God" (1736) was Edwards own account of his first revival at Northampton, Massachusetts. In 1740, George Whitefield, in one of his many trips from England, aided in the spread of this Great Awakening among the American colonies. Because Jonathan Edwards insisted that the members of his church needed to have a clear foundation of conversion to Christ, the dissenting church members removed him as their pastor in 1750. But, the "LORD is able to give thee much more than this" (2Chronicles 25:9); and, Edwards proceeded to Stockbridge, Massachusetts where he conducted missionary work with the remnant of the Mohican Indians.

38. Northhampton Revival, 1743 Ever since the great work of God that was wrought here about nine years ago, there has been a great and abiding alteration in this town in many respects. There has been vastly more religion kept up in the town, among all sorts of persons, in religious exercises, and in common conversation; there has been a great alteration among the youth of the town, with respect to revelry, frolicking, profane and licentious conversation, and lewd songs; and there has also been a great alteration, amongst both old and young, with regard to tavern-haunting. I suppose the town has been in no measure so free of vice in these respects, for any long time together, for sixty years, as it has been these nine years past. There has also been an evident alteration with respect to a charitable spirit to the poor; though I think with regard to this, we in this town as well as the land in general, come far short of gospel rules. ... What is a revival: In his book The Laws of Revival, James Burns writes "...revivals are used of God to stimulate individual and corporate spiritual life and to advance spiritual education and progress." Samuel Stoddard in 1712 said revivals are "...special seasons wherein God doth in a remarkable manner revive religion among His people." What is a revival: In his book The Laws of Revival, James Burns writes "...revivals are used of God to stimulate individual and corporate spiritual life and to advance spiritual education and progress." Samuel Stoddard in 1712 said revivals are "...special seasons wherein God doth in a remarkable manner revive religion among His people."

39. Sinners in the Hands of An Angry God The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider, or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully provoked: his wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else, but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes, than the most hateful venomous serpent is in ours. You have offended him infinitely more than ever a stubborn rebel did his prince; and yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you from falling into the fire every moment. It is to be ascribed to nothing else, that you did not go to hell the last night; that you was suffered to awake again in this world, after you closed your eyes to sleep. And there is no other reason to be given, why you have not dropped into hell since you arose in the morning, but that God's hand has held you up. There is no other reason to be given why you have not gone to hell, since you have sat here in the house of God, provoking his pure eyes by your sinful wicked manner of attending his solemn worship. Yea, there is nothing else that is to be given as a reason why you do not this very moment drop down into hell.

40. George Whitfield

41. Outdoor Ministry Outdoor stand

42. The New Birth For three days Saul took no food, and it pleased God to leave him for that time without relief. His sins were now set in order before him; he was in the dark concerning his own spiritual state, and wounded in spirit for sin. When a sinner is brought to a proper sense of his own state and conduct, he will cast himself wholly on the mercy of the Saviour, asking what he would have him to do. God will direct the humbled sinner, and though he does not often bring transgressors to joy and peace in believing, without sorrows and distress of conscience, under which the soul is deeply engaged as to eternal things, yet happy are those who sow in tears, for they shall reap in joy. Acts 9:1-9

43. Baptismal Font

44. River Baptism

45. Silver BluffAiken, SC Walter Brooks' The Silver Bluff Church details the history of the Silver Bluff Church of Aiken County, South Carolina. Brooks claims that the Silver Bluff Church, which was established on the land of Mr. George Galphin, a planter and merchant, was the first African American Baptist Church in America. The Silver Bluff Church was established in 1774 or 1775. The advent of the Revolutionary War affected the church when Mr. Galphin (the slave owner) deserted the plantation, leaving Rev. David George and 50 slaves to flee to Savannah and the protection of the British. Brooks' history recounts Rev. George's emigration to Nova Scotia in 1782, where he established a successful Negro Baptist Church, and his subsequent move to Sierra Leone where he established another Baptist church. After the Revolutionary War, the Silver Bluff Church continued to flourish under the pastorate of Jesse Peter until 1793, when the Silver Bluff congregation was absorbed into the First African Baptist Church of Savannah, Georgia. Brooks explains that the slaves who fled to Savannah from the Galphin plantation during the Revolutionary War established a church there. The power and influence of the Savannah church grew over time, eventually leading to the disintegration of the Silver Bluff Church. The book ends with Brooks' assertion that the Silver Bluff Church was founded by the Rev. Wait Palmer of Stonington, CT. Walter Brooks' The Silver Bluff Church details the history of the Silver Bluff Church of Aiken County, South Carolina. Brooks claims that the Silver Bluff Church, which was established on the land of Mr. George Galphin, a planter and merchant, was the first African American Baptist Church in America. The Silver Bluff Church was established in 1774 or 1775. The advent of the Revolutionary War affected the church when Mr. Galphin (the slave owner) deserted the plantation, leaving Rev. David George and 50 slaves to flee to Savannah and the protection of the British. Brooks' history recounts Rev. George's emigration to Nova Scotia in 1782, where he established a successful Negro Baptist Church, and his subsequent move to Sierra Leone where he established another Baptist church. After the Revolutionary War, the Silver Bluff Church continued to flourish under the pastorate of Jesse Peter until 1793, when the Silver Bluff congregation was absorbed into the First African Baptist Church of Savannah, Georgia. Brooks explains that the slaves who fled to Savannah from the Galphin plantation during the Revolutionary War established a church there. The power and influence of the Savannah church grew over time, eventually leading to the disintegration of the Silver Bluff Church. The book ends with Brooks' assertion that the Silver Bluff Church was founded by the Rev. Wait Palmer of Stonington, CT.

46. Andrew Bryan First African Church of SavannahFirst African Church of Savannah

47. Sectarians Challenge Radical rethinking of social order Faith redefines in/out group Race/gender/class no longer key operatives Heart over Head Christian community major social arbiter Challenges legitimacy of slavery.

48. The Frenzy Caption, �Religious dancing of the Blacks, termed 'Shouting�. Although post-emancipation, this scene is evocative of the late slave period. Only a portion of the author�s detailed description is given here: �Just before they break up, when the 'spirit is upon them� . . . they engage in a kind of shaker dance, which they term singularly enough, shouting . . . . A ring of singers is formed in an open space in the room, and they, without holding on to each other�s hands, walk slowly around and around in a circle . . . . They then utter a kind of melodious chant, which gradually increases in strength, and in noise, until it fairly shakes the house, and it can be heard for a long distance . . . . I know of nothing similar to this dancing or shouting, in the religious excercises of any other class of people. It is entirely unknown among the white Christians here� (Stearns, p. 371-72). Caption, �Religious dancing of the Blacks, termed 'Shouting�. Although post-emancipation, this scene is evocative of the late slave period. Only a portion of the author�s detailed description is given here: �Just before they break up, when the 'spirit is upon them� . . . they engage in a kind of shaker dance, which they term singularly enough, shouting . . . . A ring of singers is formed in an open space in the room, and they, without holding on to each other�s hands, walk slowly around and around in a circle . . . . They then utter a kind of melodious chant, which gradually increases in strength, and in noise, until it fairly shakes the house, and it can be heard for a long distance . . . . I know of nothing similar to this dancing or shouting, in the religious excercises of any other class of people. It is entirely unknown among the white Christians here� (Stearns, p. 371-72).

49. Ring Shout Salvation demanded these men and women to die in the Lord and be reborn. This is reminiscent of the spirit posession that was part of the West African culture. However, the bodies of these people were not possessed by the Gods, or infused with the characteristics and the personalities of their ancestors. They were possessed by the Holy Spirit of Jesus Christ that filled them with happiness and power, that freed them to shout, sing and dance. ``While the North American slaves danced under the impulse of the Spirit of a `new' God, they danced in ways their fathers in Africa would have recognized'' (Raboteau 72). This type of ecstatic behavior was not well received by Christian evangelists. Attempts were made to discourage shouting and ring dances. In 1878, Bishop Daniel Payne of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) made these comments. ``I attended a `bush meet'... . After the sermon they formed a ring, and with coats off sung, clapped their hands and stamped their feet in a most ridiculous and heathenish way'' (Ibid. 68). Other Christian evangelists also expressed their aversion to the growing influence of ecstatic behaviors. In 1819 Methodist evangelist John Watson wrote a book entitled, Methodist Error or Friendly Advice to Those Methodists Who Indulge in Extravagant Religious Emotions and Bodily Exercises. It was his belief that the Negro shouts, which consisted of singing for hours, wild body movements, thigh slapping, and foot stomping were beginning to infiltrate white religious worship. He wrote ``... the evil is only occasionally condemned and the example has already visibly affected the religious manners of some whites'' (Ibid. 67). Linda Brent makes mention of this phenomenon in her journal, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl; ``... the slaves left, and went to enjoy a Methodist shout. They never seem so happy as when shouting and singing at religious meetings'' (Brent 398). AME Bishop Payne lamented, ``And what is more deplorable, some of our most popular and powerful preachers labor systematically to perpetuate this fanaticism. Such preachers never rest till they create an excitement that consists in shouting, jumping and dancing'' (Raboteau 69). These evangelists were well aware that certain aspects of West African pagan culture were establishing a safe haven within the confines of Christianity. ``There are close parallels between the style of the dancing observed in African and Caribbean cult worship and the style of the American `ring shout''' (Ibid. 70). However, I am not critical of incorporating these vestiges of the past into the slave practice of Christianity. It was the cultural awareness of their past that formed the first lines of defense against the ravages of slavery. Salvation demanded these men and women to die in the Lord and be reborn. This is reminiscent of the spirit posession that was part of the West African culture. However, the bodies of these people were not possessed by the Gods, or infused with the characteristics and the personalities of their ancestors. They were possessed by the Holy Spirit of Jesus Christ that filled them with happiness and power, that freed them to shout, sing and dance. ``While the North American slaves danced under the impulse of the Spirit of a `new' God, they danced in ways their fathers in Africa would have recognized'' (Raboteau 72). This type of ecstatic behavior was not well received by Christian evangelists. Attempts were made to discourage shouting and ring dances. In 1878, Bishop Daniel Payne of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) made these comments. ``I attended a `bush meet'... . After the sermon they formed a ring, and with coats off sung, clapped their hands and stamped their feet in a most ridiculous and heathenish way'' (Ibid. 68). Other Christian evangelists also expressed their aversion to the growing influence of ecstatic behaviors. In 1819 Methodist evangelist John Watson wrote a book entitled, Methodist Error or Friendly Advice to Those Methodists Who Indulge in Extravagant Religious Emotions and Bodily Exercises. It was his belief that the Negro shouts, which consisted of singing for hours, wild body movements, thigh slapping, and foot stomping were beginning to infiltrate white religious worship. He wrote ``... the evil is only occasionally condemned and the example has already visibly affected the religious manners of some whites'' (Ibid. 67). Linda Brent makes mention of this phenomenon in her journal, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl; ``... the slaves left, and went to enjoy a Methodist shout. They never seem so happy as when shouting and singing at religious meetings'' (Brent 398). AME Bishop Payne lamented, ``And what is more deplorable, some of our most popular and powerful preachers labor systematically to perpetuate this fanaticism. Such preachers never rest till they create an excitement that consists in shouting, jumping and dancing'' (Raboteau 69). These evangelists were well aware that certain aspects of West African pagan culture were establishing a safe haven within the confines of Christianity. ``There are close parallels between the style of the dancing observed in African and Caribbean cult worship and the style of the American `ring shout''' (Ibid. 70). However, I am not critical of incorporating these vestiges of the past into the slave practice of Christianity. It was the cultural awareness of their past that formed the first lines of defense against the ravages of slavery.

50. Plantation Funeral

51. Moses as Conjure Man

52. Jesus Casting Out Satan

53. Francis Asbury Francis Asbury (1745-1816) was the first general superintendent or bishop of American Methodism. He was born near Birmingham in England and came under Methodist influence at an early age. Asbury was accepted as a local preacher at the age of eighteen and joined the itinerancy four years later. At the 1771 Conference, he was one of five volunteers to go to America. At first subordinate to senior colleagues like Joseph Pilmore and Richard Boardman, within twelve months of his arrival Asbury was appointed by John Wesley to be his temporary assistant in charge of all American work. During the War of Independence, Asbury was the only British Methodist preacher to remain in America and his pre-eminent position was confirmed by John Wesley in 1784 when he was consecrated general superintendent, a position which he held jointly with Dr Thomas Coke. For thirty years Asbury made annual tours of the eastern United States, preaching sermons and administering to the far-flung Methodist congregations. During his lifetime and at least partly due to his influence and leadership, the American Methodist Church expanded to become one of the most important Protestant denominations in the United States. Francis Asbury (1745-1816) was the first general superintendent or bishop of American Methodism. He was born near Birmingham in England and came under Methodist influence at an early age. Asbury was accepted as a local preacher at the age of eighteen and joined the itinerancy four years later. At the 1771 Conference, he was one of five volunteers to go to America. At first subordinate to senior colleagues like Joseph Pilmore and Richard Boardman, within twelve months of his arrival Asbury was appointed by John Wesley to be his temporary assistant in charge of all American work. During the War of Independence, Asbury was the only British Methodist preacher to remain in America and his pre-eminent position was confirmed by John Wesley in 1784 when he was consecrated general superintendent, a position which he held jointly with Dr Thomas Coke. For thirty years Asbury made annual tours of the eastern United States, preaching sermons and administering to the far-flung Methodist congregations. During his lifetime and at least partly due to his influence and leadership, the American Methodist Church expanded to become one of the most important Protestant denominations in the United States.

54. The Conversion of John Marrant John Marrant was a black man born free in 1775 in New York. His father died when he was very young, and after his father's death he was relocated to St. Augustine, Florida. There he began his education and was taught to read and spell. He later moved to Georgia where he continued his education until he was eleven. After Georgia they moved to Charlestown where it was assumed John would start his apprenticeship. John Marrant was a black man born free in 1775 in New York. His father died when he was very young, and after his father's death he was relocated to St. Augustine, Florida. There he began his education and was taught to read and spell. He later moved to Georgia where he continued his education until he was eleven. After Georgia they moved to Charlestown where it was assumed John would start his apprenticeship. Before Marrant could begin learning a trade he had the experience of hearing music. From then on he decided that he wanted to become a musician instead of a tradesman. The terms of his contract to learn music were negotiated and he stayed with his music teacher for a year and a half. During that time he learned to play the violin and the french horn. He was so skilled that he was invited to many social gatherings John Marrant was a black man born free in 1775 in New York. His father died when he was very young, and after his father's death he was relocated to St. Augustine, Florida. There he began his education and was taught to read and spell. He later moved to Georgia where he continued his education until he was eleven. After Georgia they moved to Charlestown where it was assumed John would start his apprenticeship. John Marrant was a black man born free in 1775 in New York. His father died when he was very young, and after his father's death he was relocated to St. Augustine, Florida. There he began his education and was taught to read and spell. He later moved to Georgia where he continued his education until he was eleven. After Georgia they moved to Charlestown where it was assumed John would start his apprenticeship. Before Marrant could begin learning a trade he had the experience of hearing music. From then on he decided that he wanted to become a musician instead of a tradesman. The terms of his contract to learn music were negotiated and he stayed with his music teacher for a year and a half. During that time he learned to play the violin and the french horn. He was so skilled that he was invited to many social gatherings

55. Richard Allen

56. The Circuit Rider

57. Catechism Charleston, 1853.Charleston, 1853.

58. The Methodist Itinerant System General Conference (1) 4 years (Bishops) Annual Conference (12) 1 year (Bishops) Districts (70) revolve quarterly (Elders) Circuits (545) revolve monthly (Elders) Classes weekly (12) (Class leaders) Bands revolve weekly (4) (Band leaders) General Conference (1) 4 years (Bishops) Annual Conference (12) 1 year (Bishops) Districts (70) revolve quarterly (Elders) Circuits (545) revolve monthly (Elders) Classes weekly (12) (Class leaders) Bands revolve weekly (4) (Band leaders)

59. Church Meeting Caption, �Meeting in the African Church, Cincinnati, Ohio�; preacher exhorting his congregation. This identical image appeared six years later in Ballou�s Pictorial (Sept. 24, 1859; p. 208), with the caption, �sunday meeting of colored people at Chicago� (see illustration in this collection). Although depicting free people of African descent, a similar scene might have taken place in urban areas of some of the slave states.Caption, �Meeting in the African Church, Cincinnati, Ohio�; preacher exhorting his congregation. This identical image appeared six years later in Ballou�s Pictorial (Sept. 24, 1859; p. 208), with the caption, �sunday meeting of colored people at Chicago� (see illustration in this collection). Although depicting free people of African descent, a similar scene might have taken place in urban areas of some of the slave states.