Chapter

1. Chapter Ten WORKING WITH -- AND AGAINST -- OTHERS: PROSOCIAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS

2. After reading this chapter you should be able to: 1. Define prosocial behavior and distinguish it from altruism. 2. Describe organizational citizenship behavior and the major forms it often takes. 3. Explain whistle-blowingand the dilemma faced by potential whistle-blowers. 4. Explain the nature of cooperation and identify both individual and organizational factors that influence its occurrence. 5. Define trust and explain its relationship to both organizational citizenship behavior and co-operation. 6. Define conflict and indicate how it can produce positive as well as negative effects. 7. Identify several organizational and interpersonal causes of conflict. 8. Describe various techniques of managing conflict. 9. Distinguish workplace violence from workplace aggression. 10. Describe causes of workplace aggression and techniques for reducing such behavior. 11. Describe the motives behind employee theft and techniques for reducing such behavior.

3. Figure 10.1 Working With or Against Others Prosocial Behavior (helping organizational citizenship behavior) Deviant Organizational Behavior (workplace aggression, employee theft, lying, fraud, etc.) Competition Working With Others Working Against Others Cooperation Conflict

4. Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others At Work (Pp. 371-375) Altruism - actions by one person that benefit others under conditions in which the donor expects nothing in return - research casts doubt on the existence of totally selfless helping Prosocial behavior - actions that help other individuals or organizations in various ways Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) - actions by organization members that exceed the formal requirements of their job - go beyond the formal requirements of the job - are discretionary in nature - are not necessarily recognized by the formal reward structure

5. Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others At Work (cont.) Prosocial behavior (cont.) Five basic categories of OCB Altruistic- helps another person Conscientious - goes beyond minimum requirements Civic virtue - shows concern about the organization Sportsmanship - tolerant of less-than-ideal circumstances Courtesy - behaving so as to avoid creating conflict Determinants of OCB Expected fair treatment - employees’ trust in their immediate supervisor Breadth of job - more OCB associated with more broadly- defined jobs Organizational commitment - committed employees more likely to “go the extra mile” Importance of OCB - OCB produces beneficial effects for individuals and organizations

6. Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others At Work (cont.) Whistle-Blowing - disclosure by employees of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices by employers to people or organizations able to do something about it - whistle blowers sacrifice a great deal to protect innocent victims - most whistle-blowers try to work inside their organizations before going public Effective whistle-blowing Document your claims scrupulously Speak to your immediate supervisor first Talk to a lawyer Plan for the worst

7. Cooperation: Mutual Assistance in Work Settings (Pp. 375-381) Cooperation Person A Goal Person B Competition Person A Goal Person B Cooperation - pattern of behavior in which assistance is mutual and two or more individuals, groups, or organizations work together toward shared goals for their mutual benefit - cannot occur when the goals sought by the individuals or groups cannot be shared Competition - pattern of behavior in which each person, group, or organi- zation seeks to maximize its own gains, often at the expense of others Figure 10.4

8. Cooperation: Mutual Assistance in Work Settings(cont.) Social Dilemma - situation in which all parties can increase their gains by acting in one way but stand to lose if all (or most) do so Mixed motives - reasons exist for cooperating and to defect Defect - do what is best for you regardless of its effect on others Individual Determinants of Cooperation Reciprocity - tendency for people to return the kind of treatment they receive from others Personal orientation - reliable tendencies toward displaying a particular degree of cooperation Cooperative - maximize joint outcomes Individualistic - maximize own outcomes Competitive - focus on defeating others Trust - individual’s confidence in the goodwill of others and the belief they will make effects consistent with the group’s goal Cognition-based - beliefs about reliability of others Affect-based - emotional bond involving genuine care for welfare of others

9. Cooperation: Mutual Assistance in Work Settings(cont.) Organizational Determinants of Cooperation Reward systems - awards administered to individuals or single units produces a high degree of competition Winner-take-all Interdependence among employees - greater cooperation associated with greater interdependence Cooperation Across Organizations - interorganizational coordination Partnering with suppliers - no longer viewed as adversaries - partners perceive their outcomes to be intimately linked Promoting business growth - independent companies join forces by means of mergers or joint ventures Responding to external threats - mutual protection

10. Conflict: Its Nature, Causes, and Effects (Pp. 382-387) Conflict - process in which one party perceives another has (or is about to take) some action that will exert a negative effect on its major interest - characteristics of conflict - opposing interests between individuals or groups - recognition of such opposition - belief by each side that the other will thwart these interests - actions that produce such thwarting Integration and distribution - two basic dimensions of conflict Distribution - concern with one’s own outcomes Integration - concern with the outcomes of others - dimensions are largely independent - may be used to define five basic styles for resolving conflict

11. Figure 10.8 Basic Styles of Resolving Conflict (high) Competition Collaboration Distribution Compromise (low) (high) Integration Avoidance Accommodation (low)

12. Conflict: Its Nature, Causes, and Effects (cont.) Major Causes of Conflict - major groups of factors contribute to conflict Organizational causes Competition over scarce resources Ambiguity over responsibility - uncertainty about tasks Ambiguity over jurisdiction - uncertainty about authority Interpersonal causes - social and cognitive causes Faulty attributions - errors concerning the believed causes behind others’ behavior Faulty communication - communication that unintentionally angers or annoys another person Destructive criticism Naïve realism - tendency to perceive one’s ideas as being more objective than other’s ideas

13. Competition over scarce resources Faulty attributions Interdependence Poor communications Ambiguity over responsibility, jurisdiction Naïve realism Organizational cause Interpersonal cause Figure 10.9 Causes of Conflict Conflict

14. Brings into the open problems that have been ignored • previously • Motivates people to understand each other’s position • Encourages new ideas, facilitating innovation and change • May improve decision quality by forcing people to challenge • their assumptions • Enhances organizational commitment Positive effects • Negative emotions, stress • Reduces communication required for coordination • Shift from participative to authoritarian styles • Negative stereotyping • Emphasizes loyalty to one groups Negative effects Figure 10.10 Causes of Conflict Conflict

15. Conflict Management (Pp. 387-392) Bargaining - the process in which opposing sides exchange offers, counter- offers, and concessions, either directly or through representatives - if successful, a solution that both parties find acceptable is attained - conflict is resolved - if unsuccessful, a costly deadlock may result - conflict may be intensified Outcomes of bargaining determined by: Special tactics - many intended to reduce the opponent’s aspirations about what s/he can achieve by means of negotiation Extreme offer Big lie Claiming an “out” Misrepresenting your position on common issues

16. Conflict Management (cont.) Outcomes of bargaining determined by: (cont.) Overall orientation - perspective governing approach to bargaining Win-lose situation - gains by one side are necessarily linked with losses for the other Win-win situation - interests of both sides are not necessarily incompatible and both sides may realize gains Integrative agreements - offer greater joint benefits than simple compromise (i.e., splitting the differences down the middle) Perceptual errors - conflict associated with misperceiving the situation faced by the two sides Incompatibility error - tendency for both sides to assume that their interests are entirely incompatible Fixed-sum error - tendency to assume one side of a conflict places the same importance as the other side on every issue Transparency overestimation - belief that our goals and motives are more apparent to opponents than actually is the case

17. Conflict Management (cont.) Third-Party Intervention - someone not directly involved in a dispute asked to intervene when bargaining is deadlocked Mediation - attempts to facilitate voluntary agreements by clarifying the issues and enhancing communication between the sides - no power to impose a solution Arbitration - third party has the power to impose (or at least to recommend strongly) the terms of an agreement between the disputing parties Binding arbitration - two sides agree in advance to accept the terms set by the arbitrator Voluntary arbitration - two sides retain the freedom to reject the recommended agreement - reluctance to ignore the terms because of the stature of the arbitrator Conventional arbitration - arbitrator can offer any package of terms that s/he wishes Final-offer arbitration - arbitrator chooses between final offers made by the disputants themselves

18. Deviant Organizational Behavior(Pp. 392-399) Deviant Organizational Behavior - actions by employees that intentionally violate the existing norms of their group, organization, or society and that result in negative consequences for coworkers or the organization Workplace violence - direct, physical assaults by present or former employees against others in their organization - most performed by “outsiders” - actually is quite rare event Workplace aggression - any action through which individuals seek to harm others in the workplace - largely covert rather than overt Expressions of hostility Obstructionsism Overt aggression - causes of workplace aggression - perceived unfairness - changes in staffing levels

19. Deviant Organizational Behavior(cont.) Effectively Managing Workplace Aggression -several tactics are useful Employee screening - identify applicants with a history of aggressive behavior or traits associated with aggressive behavior Disciplinary behavior - clearly-defined programs of progressive punishment Treating people fairly - assure high levels of organizational justice Employee training - teach appropriate response to threats - teach skills to recognize potentially threatening situations and to defuse situations that may be underway

20. Deviant Organizational Behavior(cont.) Employee Theft - unauthorized appropriation of company property by employees for their personal use Why do employees steal? - traditional explanations take fatalistic approach Opportunities present themselves - requires elaborate security to reduce the perceived opportunities to steal Pressures experienced by employee - financial and vice-based Criminal personality - rationalizes all action as being correct STEAL Motive - approach requires understanding the social motives in the workplace that encourage employee theft Support - group norms that condone theft Thwart - employees’ desire to resist group norms by doing whatever they want Even the score - beliefs about having been treated unfairly Approval - some supervisors not only pardon theft, but approve of it as an informal way to reward employees Invisible wage structure

21. Deviant Organizational Behavior(cont.) Managing Employee Theft - a variety of useful methods available Treat employees with dignity and respect Involve employees in formally defining theft Openly communicate the costs of stealing Use corporate hotlines Be a good role model