Going beyond the information given: Understanding other minds

1. Going beyond the information given: Understanding other minds Rebecca Saxe BCS

2. Going beyond the information given • Do the words you used indicate: • Gender? • Goals or desires? (e.g. wants, tries) • Emotions? (e.g. happy, afraid) • Personality traits? (e.g. bully) What do you see? Watch and then write.

3. A hand reaching for a bottle His intention: to drink the liquid FICTION He believes the liquid is poison He wants to die Etc. He believes Juliet is dead False Beliefs Going beyond the information given For understanding other minds: (a domain of mostly invisible entities!) What we see: A “biological” motion What we understand:

4. Going beyond the information given For understanding other minds: (a domain of mostly invisible entities!) Unobservable Beliefs (& False Beliefs): - Not much it feels like to be “believing” e.g. that today is Wednesday that drought destroys crops that your grandmother is older than me that I have a liver

5. Going beyond the information given For understanding other minds: (a domain of mostly invisible entities!) Unobservable Beliefs (& False Beliefs): - Not much it feels like to be “believing” - Especially true for false beliefs: Which of your current beliefs are false? So where does the concept of “belief” come from?

6. --- The World --- DESIRES ACTIONS Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” What evidence? - certain kinds of failed prediction BELIEFS

7. Anne Sally Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” 3 years old: “In the box.” Where will Sally look for her ball?

8. Anne Sally Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” 5 years old: “In the basket.” Where will Sally look for her ball?

9. Three year olds: Perfect copy of real world Five year olds: “Representation” of real world Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” --- The World --- DESIRES BELIEFS ACTIONS Sally will look for her ball… Romeo will kill himself… People vote for Bush… FRAME-WORK Theory

10. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” --- The World --- • What evidence? • certain kinds of failed prediction • “self-explanation” DESIRES BELIEFS - How people talk ACTIONS • Talking about past events • Gossips about absent people

11. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Adam Gopnik: Of course Luke didn't have to be told whom they were looking at down there, and why; we both could see it plain as day. They were watching the Rookie, pitching his way out of another pinch. Yet I began to wonder: What picture did he summon up when, night after night, he heard the words Polo Grounds, full count, all the way to the backstop? [...] He had never been to a baseball game, never seen a bat or a glove, never been inside a ballpark or even watched a ball game on television. [...] No one Luke knew played baseball, no one talked about it; the words and situations were pure language, pure abstract lore. [...] But now I said "Polo Grounds" or "full count" and the words called up in my son a powerful reaction.

12. Camera Photograph Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Deaf children: - of non-signer vs native-signer parents Theory of Mind OR 1. Meta-representation 2. Inhibit reality, respond to belief 3. Falseness

13. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Deaf children: - of non-signer vs native-signer parents - NOT delayed on false photograph tasks

14. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” --- The World --- • What evidence? • certain kinds of failed prediction • “self-explanation” DESIRES BELIEFS - How people talk ACTIONS - A special neural mechanism just for understanding minds?

15. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Healthy brains: False Belief stories False Photo stories Susie parked her sportscar in the driveway. In the middle of the night. Nathan moved her car into the garage to make room for his minivan. Susie woke up early in the morning. A volcano erupted on this Caribbean island three months ago. Barren lava rock is all that remains. Satellite photographs show the island as it was before the eruption. In the photos the island is covered in rock vegetation She expects to see in the drive a sportscar a minivan

16. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Healthy brains: False Belief stories False Photo stories In 90% of individual subjects: Right temporo-parietal junction

17. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” Autistic children: -> Suggests that “Theory of Mind” is not just about general intelligence -> A disanalogy from scientific theories?

18. Going beyond the information given So where does the concept of “belief” come from? “Theory of Mind” --- The World --- • An intuitive Theory? • control and predict the world • generate explanations, satisfy need for knowledge • domain specific? • special neural mechanism? DESIRES BELIEFS ACTIONS

19. Going beyond the information given An intuitive Theory? Non-Theory alternative? Is there any alternative hypothesis? “Cells that read minds”? "Mirror neurons allow us to grasp the minds of others not through conceptual reasoning but through direct simulation. By feeling, not by thinking." --- The World --- DESIRES BELIEFS ACTIONS

20. Grasp Intensity Time An alternative hypothesis: A class of cells in monkey MOTOR cortex: Motor prep. Response during OBSERVATION: … same action specificity!

21. Watching someone else’s hand moving Arm moving Hand muscle Arm muscle An alternative hypothesis: A common code for own and other’s actions... Muscle response

22. 1. Being touched: Brain response: 2. A video of someone else being touched An alternative hypothesis: “Feeling” someone else’s feelings...

23. Own pain: Significant other’s pain: An alternative hypothesis: “Feeling” someone else’s pain...

24. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? Let’s take a break

25. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? • Four arguments against: • A specific thought experiment • An argument from neuroscience • An argument from error • An argument from success

26. THOUGHTS ACTION What would a mirror neuron do? An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? Thought experiment:

27. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? • Four arguments against: • A specific thought experiment • An argument from neuroscience

28. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from neuroscience: A group of brain regions involved in “Theory of Mind” Anatomically and functionally distinct from the “Mirror system”

29. A recent experiment: Your friend Louis is getting very high grades in high school. He is taking AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP Calculus, and AP Biochemistry. Background After he graduates Louis wants to study medicine and his ambition is to become a neurosurgeon. Mental State While you are having a drink together, he tells you that he just received a letter informing him that he was accepted to a premed program at a prestigious university. Outcome * Will Louis have positive or negative feelings with regards to his acceptance? positive / negative Feeling Question (see Terwogt and Rieffe 2003).

30. 6.3 s 6.3 s 7.4 s 4 s A recent experiment: Scan Details N = 12 naïve native English speaking, American middle class; 3T scanner, whole brain coverage, slices = 4mm, TR =2 + Localiser Story details - matched for word length - counterbalanced both whether the character feels positive or negative, and the side of the correct response. - counterbalanced versions of each story Your friend Louis is getting very high grades in high school. He is taking AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP Calculus, and AP Biochemistry. Background After he graduates Louis wants to study medicine and his ambition is to become a neurosurgeon. Mental State While you are having a drink together, he tells you that he just received a letter informing him that he was accepted to a premed program at a prestigious university. Outcome * Will Louis have positive or negative feelings with regards to his acceptance? positive / negative Feeling Question (Saxe & Wexler, 2005).

31. Immediate: Delayed: Time In individual subject RTPJ ROIs (p<0.05 corrected) RTPJ response delayed 6 s? P < 0.01, paired-samples t-test A recent experiment: Background: Mental state info delayed 6 s (Saxe & Wexler, 2005).

32. A recent experiment: 2 x 2 design: Validated by a survey after the scan “Familiar” “Foreign” Your friendLouis/Jasonis getting very high grades in high school. He is taking AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP Calculus, and AP Biochemistry. Your friendLouis/Jasoncomes from a very rich family. There is an unbroken tradition in his family that the sons don’t work for a living. They live on the inheritance and do whatever they like. “Normal” After he graduates Louis wants to study medicine and his ambition is to become a neurosurgeon. N = 12 naïve native English speaking, American middle class; 3T scanner, whole brain coverage, slices = 4mm, TR =2

33. Your friendAndrew/Paul, from high school, lives in Philadelphia. He and his wife have always had an excellent relationship. They almost never fight. Your friend Andrew/Paul, from high school, and his wife have become involved with a cult. Within their cult, extramarital relationships are accepted and occur often. Andrewonce confided in you that he really hates the idea that his wife might have an affair. Monogamy is very important to him. Paulonce confided in you that he would find it fun if his wife, outside of their marriage, started a relationship with another man. A recent experiment: 2 x 2 design: Validated by a survey after the scan “Familiar” “Foreign” Your friendLouis/Jasonis getting very high grades in high school. He is taking AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP Calculus, and AP Biochemistry. Your friendLouis/Jasoncomes from a very rich family. There is an unbroken tradition in his family that the sons don’t work for a living. They live on the inheritance and do whatever they like. “Normal” “Unusual” After he graduates Louis wants to study medicine and his ambition is to become a neurosurgeon. Jasonnever wants to work in his life. He’d much rather live on his parents’ money, and not bother with college or job. N = 12 naïve native English speaking, American middle class; 3T scanner, whole brain coverage, slices = 4mm, TR =2

34. Familiar - Normal Familiar - Unusual Familiar - Normal Familiar - Unusual Foreign- Normal Foreign - Unusual Foreign- Normal Foreign-Unusual A recent experiment: RTPJ recruitment: predictions during Mental State 1.LIKE ME - NOT LIKE ME Other minds are represented relative to subject’s own mind. RTPJ response is correlated with how “like me” the other mind is. 2. TRYING TO MAKE SENSE Other minds are represented as internally coherent wholes. RTPJ response reflects interaction of background and mental state

35. A recent experiment: RTPJ recruitment: Mental States: (6 - 12 sec) Background (0 - 6 sec): = No sig. effects Just for Beliefs and Desires = TRYING TO MAKE SENSE • During MS, interaction of Background and Mental State, p<0.01

36. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? • Four arguments against: • A specific thought experiment • An argument from neuroscience • An argument from error

37. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from error: Adam Gopnik: "Hey, look, that's the Chief" I announced proudly, opening the old baseball encyclopedia at his bedside. He paused, looked at the picture, looked back at me - peering in, for a moment - and then he got a funny, guilty smile on his face that I had never seen there before. "Oh," he said, peering intently at the picture. "I thought it was his mother." "What do you mean?" I said, surprised. "I mean, I knew it was - but I thought it was. I mean I knew it was a man... but I thought he was the mother," he continued, stumbling a little. "I thought it was his mother."

38. Three year olds: Perfect copy of real world Five year olds: “Representation” of real world An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from error: --- The World --- DESIRES BELIEFS ACTIONS

39. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from error: Three year olds: Perfect copy of real world The “Appearance - Reality” distinction: It looks like a rock. It feels and moves like a sponge. What will it look like to the next child, when he comes in?

40. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from error: Three year olds: Perfect copy of real world The “Appearance - Reality” distinction Sources of Knowledge Which puppet knows whether It is the red or green ball? One touches: It is the hard or soft cat? One looks:

41. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? An argument from error: Three year olds just bad at mirroring? The “Appearance - Reality” distinction Sources of Knowledge Theory-based errors in adults?

42. An alternative hypothesis: Theory-based errors in adults? Milgram: The “teacher” was led into an adjoining room in which an elaborate electrical control panel was placed. Switches on the control panel were labeled with voltage indicators in increasing order from 15-450 volts. Several switches were also labeled as "Extreme-Intensity Shock," "Danger - severe shock," and the highest voltage switch was labeled "XXX." The “teacher” was instructed to read a pre-selected, randomly ordered list of word pairs to test the pupil's ability to correctly match words. Whenever the pupil answered incorrectly, the teacher was instructed to throw one of the switches, starting at the lowest voltage and progressing to the higher voltages. About midway through the series of switches, the "pupil" would complain loudly that he wanted to stop, kick the wall, and scream. At the highest levels of shock the pupil would remain silent.

43. An alternative hypothesis: Theory-based errors in adults? Milgram: 15-450 volts. How high would you go? How many people would go to the highest level? Predictions: only criminals and psychopaths go over 115 volts Reality: 65% of subjects go to 450 volts

44. An alternative hypothesis: Theory-based errors in adults? What proportion of the household errands do you do? What proportion will your partner or roommate claim that he/she does? Real minds: Salience Theory of Mind: Self-serving bias

45. Impetus Theory of Motion An alternative hypothesis: Theory-based errors in adults Are we all just “bad” mirrors? Inaccuracy vs Bias Example from intuitive physics:

46. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? • Four arguments against: • A specific thought experiment • An argument from neuroscience • An argument from error • An argument from success

47. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? Argument from success: Understanding states that one has never experienced: Kelli When Kelli was 3.5 years old: Show me the back of your pants.

48. An alternative hypothesis: Do we use “mirror neurones,” instead of an intuitive theory, to understand other minds? Argument from success: Understanding states that one has never experienced: Kelli A congenitally blind adult defines “to notice”: To see something that comes into your view. But not only to see it, but to perceive it and understand it. You could sit on this rocking chair and not notice the colour of it at all When Kelli was 4.5 years old: Can you hide the car, so Mommy won’t see it?

49. Going beyond the information given An intuitive Theory? Non-Theory alternative? • Arguments against feeling instead of thinking: • Specific counterexample • Neuroscience • Error • Success --- The World --- DESIRES BELIEFS ACTIONS

50. Going beyond the information given • Topics to think about: • Can neuroscientific evidence help us evaluate cognitive theories? • Will the “Theory of Mind” brain regions be recruited when blind people reason about other people’s visual perception? • What is the mechanism of Theory change? • Is there a real change of Theory around 4 years? Note: Adults have similar problems in more complex situations - “the curse of knowledge”. • Do pre-verbal infants have theories?