NON-SURVEY DATA COLLECTION

1. NON-SURVEY DATA COLLECTION Presented by Anslem Wandega Program Manager, African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect (ANPPCAN) Uganda Chapter Tel: +256-782 301052 E-mail: awandega@anppcanug.org awandega@gmail.com TAP3 Grantees Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa, May 5, 2011

2. Objectives • Enable participants to understand how non-survey data can contribute to their findings and the effectiveness of their advocacy. • Help participants to understand the available non-survey data collection options and what these options are best suited for. • Guide participants on selecting and planning for appropriate non-survey data collection methods their organizations want to collect for their own studies .

3. Non-Survey Data Collection Methods • Some of the non survey data collection methods include Focus Group Discussions, Key Informant Interviews, Case Studies, etc. • This presentation focuses on Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews

4. 1. Focus Group Discussions • What are FGDs? • When to use FGDs? • When not to use FGDs? • Using FGDs. • Facilitating FGDs. • Who should facilitate? • Who should participate? • What questions to ask? • How to analyse data and write the report

5. What are FGDs? • The focus group discussions (FGDs) are rapid assessment, semi‐structured data gathering methods in which a purposively selected set of participants gather to discuss issues and concerns based on a list of key themes drawn up by the researcher/facilitator (Kumar 1987). • This qualitative research technique was originally developed to give marketing researchers a better understanding of the data from quantitative consumer surveys. • As an indispensable tool for marketing researchers (Krueger 1994), the focus group discussion has become extremely popular because it provides a fast way to learn from the target audience. FGDs work alongside other data collection methods

6. When to use FGDs? • Focus Groups are appropriate when you want to: • Explore the depth and nuances of opinions regarding an issue • Understand differences in perspectives on an issue • Understand what factors influence opinions or behavior • Test reactions to actual or proposed services • Design a large study or understand its results • Capture opinions and perspectives of a service’s beneficiaries • Learn about participants by observing their interactions

7. When not to use FGDs • Need statistical information about an entire population • Are working with emotionally or politically charged groups • When confidentiality is inevitable • Do not have the skills to analyze the data

8. Using FGDs • Use the FGD guide to collect information from Focus Groups. It serves as a road map that guides the facilitator in covering the list of topics and keeping the discussion on track. The number of items in the guide is generally kept to a minimum to leave enough time for in‐depth discussion. The sequence of topics in the guide usually moves from general to specific. • Steps suggested for developing the focus group discussion guide: • Specify the objectives and information needs of the focus group discussion. • Break down the major topics into discussion points or themes • Prepare probe questions. • Review the guide and eliminate any irrelevant questions.

9. Facilitating FGDs • Key Personnel: For each focus group, you should have a moderator and an assistant moderator. The moderator leads the discussion, keeps the conversation flowing and takes a few notes to remember comments that s/he may want to use later. The assistant moderator takes comprehensive notes, operates the tape recorder, handles the environmental conditions and logistics, responds to unexpected interruptions and keeps track of time. • Qualities of a facilitator: • familiarity with the discussion topic • ability to speak the language spoken of the area • cultural sensitivity, including not acting as a judge, a teacher, does not looking down on respondents, not agreeing or disagreeing with what is said, and not putting words in the participants’ mouths.

10. Facilitating FGDs • genuine interest in people • sensitivity to men and women • politeness • empathy • respect for participants • Keeps time • Two approaches are essential to facilitating focus groups. • The first is being a “blank slate.” This means approaching the focus group with an open mind and as few preconceptions as possible about what participants are likely to say or not say. • The other essential approach is to be aware of potential biases as a moderator. Differences in race/ethnicity, class and education levels between the moderator and participants can bring unforeseen biases to how a facilitator runs a focus group.

11. Facilitating FGDs • Logistical arrangements for FGDs • Invitations ( an invitation sent to the participant 1-2 weeks in advance; a reminder a day to the session) • Group composition (members should be knowledgeable about the topic; optimal number to be between 8-10 people –just enough to control and avoid domination during discussions) • Transportation (this will depend on the distance between households; used more in sparsely populated areas, at discretion in both moderately populated and densely populated areas). • Venue (should be spacious, comfortable and neutral; usually at schools, churches, community centres, etc in rural areas) • Sitting arrangement (should be the one that stimulates interaction between group members)

12. Facilitating FGDs • Timing (The longest FGD shouldn’t go beyond two hours) • Name tags (enables the facilitator to call on those who are shy to speak) • Tape recording (especially tape recording is very important) • Refreshments (depends on the context)

13. Facilitating FGDs Cont. • Start with introductions (individuals and topics for discussion) • Stick to the FGD guide that you developed beforehand. • During discussions, give each participant a chance to contribute. Use open ended questions and avoid dichotomous questions and a variety of moderating tactics to facilitate the group . • Pay close attention to what is said in order to encourage that behavior in other Participants • In addition to taking notes, tape record the discussion and transcribe it. • Check the tape recorder before and immediately after each session—if it did not work, do an immediate debrief.

14. Facilitating FGDs Cont. • Be ready for unexpected problems, such as bad weather, fewer participants than expected, poor meeting space, field coordinator did not make adequate preparations, participants bring other adults, other uninvited people show up, or the group doesn’t want to talk. • Anticipate running out of time—think about what you would do to modify the agenda. • The Physical Environment • It is important to choose or set up a physical space for the focus group that is going to feel welcoming and comfortable to the participants. It should be neutral, private, free from distractions and easily accessible. • Arrange participants in a circle. • Provide refreshments (if any) and place them away from the circle to avoid distractions.

15. Facilitating FGDs Cont. • Tell Participants “They’re the Experts” • It is important to convey to participants that you value their opinions, that they are the experts, and that the focus group facilitation team have come to learn from them. This empowers participants, helps them feel a sense of purpose and helps eliminate any barriers that may arise as a result of differences between participants and focus group team. • Facilitator Affect: Warm But Neutral • In order to avoid “leading” participants with any reaction to their comments, we suggest that reactions should be warm but value-neutral. Ways to be value-neutral are: information seeking (e.g. “tell me more about that…”), clarifying (e.g. “Can you explain what you mean?”) and acknowledging (“I hear what you are saying…”).

16. Facilitating FGDs Cont. • Ask Only One Question at a Time • Don’t ask more than one question at a time, even if the questions go together. Participants usually cannot remember several questions at one time, and asking multiple questions makes it hard for them to know where to start. • Frequently Repeat Key Phrases from the Question • Participants tend to lose focus on the question after 2-3 other participants have responded to it. Repeating key phrases from the question at strategic times, or asking participants to link their response to key terms in the question will help participants stay focused.

17. Facilitating FGDs Cont. • Be Comfortable with Silence • It is also important that moderators are comfortable with silence and “pregnant pauses.” Some participants may participate more if they have more time to consider the question before they speak. • Use Probes When You Need More Information • When participants are not providing enough information, try the following probes: • Would you explain further?, Would you give me an example of what you mean?, Would you say more?, Is there anything else?, Please describe what you mean, I don’t understand, Does anyone see it differently?, Has anyone had a different experience?, etc

18. Writing the FGD report • After conducting the focus group discussion, the key findings are described, analyzed and written up in a report. • Develop a plan for data analysis consisting • Analyze the content of the group discussion by • reviewing the notes from the focus group • listening again to the cassettes from the session (if tape recorded) • grouping research findings according to key themes • identifying the different positions that emerged under each key theme • summarizing each of the different positions and assess the extent to which each position was held by participants • pulling out verbatim phrases that represent each position.

19. Writing the FGD report Cont • Synthesize the group discussion by: • reviewing the notes of each discussion made by the moderator • identifying the recurrent ideas that came out during the discussion • interpreting these recurrent ideas based upon other findings that emerged in the groups

20. FGD-Key themes to focus • These depend on the topic under study. Probable ones include the following: • Issues in relation to the service – availability, access, usage & quality • Incidence & type of problems • Pattern of response to problems • Costs – hidden, legal, forced, willingness to pay for better services • Recap of problems and issues • Suggestions for service quality improvement • Post discussion analysis – relevant issues for the study

21. 2. Key Informant Interviews • What are Key Informant Interviews? • They are qualitative, in-depth interviews of 15 to 35 people selected for their first-hand knowledge about a topic of interest. The interviews are loosely structured, relying on a list of issues to be discussed. • Key informant interviews resemble a conversation among acquaintances, allowing a free flow of ideas and information. Interviewers frame questions spontaneously, probe for information and takes notes, which are elaborated on later.

22. When to Use Key Informant Interviews? • When only qualitative, descriptive information is sufficient for decision-making. • When there is a need to understand motivation, behavior, and perspectives of policy makers, managers and planners • When a main purpose is to generate recommendations from experts • When quantitative data collected through other methods need to be interpreted. Key informant interviews can provide the how and why of what happened. • When preliminary information is needed to design a comprehensive quantitative study.Key informant interviews can help frame the issues before the survey is undertaken.

23. KII-Advantages and disadvantages • Advantages • They provide information directly from knowledgeable people • They provide flexibility to explore new ideas and issues not anticipated during planning • They are in expensive and simple to conduct • Disadvantages • They are not appropriate if quantitative data are needed • They may be biased if informants are not carefully selected • They are susceptible to interviewer biases

24. Key Informant Interviews-steps • Step 1: Formulate study questions • These relate to specific concerns of the study. Study questions generally should be limited to five or fewer. • Step 2: Prepare a short interview guide • Key informant interviews do not use rigid questionnaires, which inhibit free discussion. The guide should list major topics and issues to be covered under each study question. • Because the purpose is to explore a few issues in depth, guides are usually limited to 12 items. Different guides may be necessary for interviewing different groups of informants.

25. Key Informant Interviews-steps • Step 3: Choose the Interviewer • The interviewer has to remain neutral and must refrain from asking biased or leading questions during the interview. An effective interviewer understands the topic and does not impose judgments. Therefore, choose an interviewer who: • Listens carefully. • Is friendly and can easily establish rapport. • Knows and understands the local customs, behaviours and beliefs. • Can inspire confidence and trust.

26. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Step 4: Identify Suitable Key Informants • Choose suitable key informants according to the purpose of the interview. Key informants should be selected for their specialized knowledge and unique perspectives on a topic. To do this, first identify the groups and organizations from which key informants, then select a few people from each category after consulting with people familiar with the groups under consideration should be drawn. In addition, each informant may be asked to suggest other people who may be interviewed. • The informant can be a politician, head of department, planner, community member, teacher, religious or secular leader,indigenous healer, traditional birth attendant, local service provider, children and young people or others from the affected community.

27. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Step 5: Conduct the Interview • Based on what you already know about the issue, develop an interview guide beforehand to ensure that all areas of interest are covered. Use open-ended questions as much as possible • Hold the interview in a place that can put the respondent at ease. • Establish rapport. Begin with an explanation of the purpose of the interview, the intended uses of the information and assurances of confidentiality. Often informants will want assurances that the interview has been approved by relevant officials. Except when interviewing technical experts, questioners should avoid jargon.

28. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Sequence questions. Start with factual questions. Questions requiring opinions and judgments should follow. In general, begin with the present and move to questions about the past or future. Phrase questions carefully to elicit detailed information. Avoid questions that can be answered by a simple yes or no. • Use probing techniques. Encourage informants to detail the basis for their conclusions and recommendations. • Maintain a neutral attitude. Interviewers should be sympathetic listeners and avoid giving the impression of having strong views on the subject under discussion. Neutrality is essential because some informants, trying to be polite, will say what they think the interviewer wants to hear. • For each interviewee, note down your own observations about the process and content of the interview.

29. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont. • Step 6: Take adequate notes • Interviewers should take notes and develop them in detail immediately after each interview to ensure accuracy. Use a set of common subheadings for interview texts, selected with an eye to the major issues being explored. Common subheadings ease data analysis. • Step 7: Analyze the data and write the report • Interview summary sheets. At the end of each interview, prepare a 1-2 page interview summary sheet reducing information into manageable themes, issues, and recommendations. Each summary should provide information about the key informant’s position, reason for inclusion in the list of informants, main points made, implications of these observations, and any insights or ideas the interviewer had during the interview

30. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Descriptive codes. Coding involves a systematic recording of data. While numeric codes are not appropriate, descriptive codes can help organize responses. These codes may cover key themes, concepts, questions, or ideas usual practice is to note the codes or categories on the left-hand margins of the interview text. Then a summary lists the page numbers where each item (code) appears. For example, child participation might be given the code “chil–par’. • Categories and subcategories for coding (based on key study questions, hypotheses, or conceptual frameworks) can be developed before interviews begin, or after the interviews are completed. Precoding saves time, but the categories may not be appropriate. Postcoding helps ensure empirically relevant categories, but is time consuming. A compromise is to begin developing coding categories after 8 to 10 interviews, as it becomes apparent which categories are relevant.

31. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Storage and retrieval. The next step is to develop a simple storage and retrieval system. Access to a computer program that sorts text is very helpful. Relevant parts of interview text can then be organized according to the codes. The same effect can be accomplished without computers by preparing folders for each category, cutting relevant comments from the interview and pasting them onto index cards according to the coding scheme, then filing them in the appropriate folder. Each index card should have an identification mark so the comment can be attributed to its source. • Presentation of data. Visual displays such as tables, boxes, and figures can condense information, present it in a clear format, and highlight underlying relationships and trends. This helps communicate findings to decision-makers more clearly, quickly, and easily.

32. Key Informant Interviews-steps Cont • Step 8: Check for reliability and validity • Key informant interviews are susceptible to error, bias, and misinterpretation, which can lead to flawed findings and recommendations. • Check representativeness of key informants. • Assess reliability of key informants • Check interviewer or investigator bias • Check for negative evidence • Get feedback from informants

33. 4.0 BRAINSTORMING & DISCUSSION • OVER TO YOU…

34. REFERENCES • Debus, M. (1988). A handbook for excellence in focus group research. HEALTHCOM Project special Report Series. Washington, D.C.: Porter/Novelli. • Krueger, R. A. (1994). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Newbury Park, California, U.S.A.: Sage Publications, Inc. • Kumar, K. (1987). Conducting focus group interviews in developing countries. A.I.D. Program Design and Evaluation Methodology Report No. 8. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Agency for International Development. • US Department of Health and Human Services. (1980). Pretesting in health communications: methods, examples, and resource for improving health messages and materials. Bethesda, MD., US.A.: National Cancer Institute. • Adapted from Needs Assessment Techniques Using Key Informant Interviews, University of Illinois, Extension Service-Office of Program Planning and Assessment, Chicago, p. 3.

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