9-cell nucleus and chromosomes

1. Cell Nucleus and Chromosomes

2. Cell Nucleus:is a organelle found in a center of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many. Red blood cells (RBC) are cells that have function of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system. In humans, Mature red blood cells have no nucleus which is the compartment that houses the DNA. Immature red blood cells actually do have a nucleus but when they differentiate to become the mature red blood cells the nucleus is actually ejected, so they have no nucleus and no DNA. They lack a cell nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin. An osteoclast (from Ancient Greek osteon, meaning 'bone', and clastos, meaning 'broken') is a type of bone cell that breaks down bone tissue. Osteoclasts contain more than one nucleus. They are large cells produced by the fusion of several smaller ones. Osteoclasts travel over the surface of the bone matrix and secrete acids and enzymes to disintegrate it, forming a little pit on the surface of the bone. The osteoclast disassembles and digests the composite of hydrated protein and mineral at a molecular level by secreting acid and a collagenase, a process known as bone resorption. This process also helps regulate the level of blood calcium.

4. osteoclast

5. The cell nucleus contains all of the cell's genome, multiple long linear DNA molecules in a complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. A chromosomeis a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule which are genetic material of an organism. Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. In biology, a geneis a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for a molecule that has a specific function, ie: protein or RNA.

7. GENE??? A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes are made up of DNA. Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. However, many genes do not code for proteins. 

9. Genes are molecules that play a role in inheritance • Contains genetic codes that play a role in phenotypic appearance and biological activities • Segment of DNA that has the information (the code) for a protein or RNA. • A single molecule of DNA has thousands of genes on the molecule. • Remember the mantra: DNA  RNA  Protein

10. GENE  PROTEIN

12. MUTATION GENE  INCORRECT PROTEIN - Correct Protein - - Incorrect Protein -

13. What is the structure of genes? • How do genes inherit trait from parent to child? • How can genes play a role in regulating bodily functions? • How can genes play a role in regulating bodily functions? • Is it the same between humans and animals genes? • etc Basic Question… TASK HOMEWORK

14. Chromosomes are important molecules as they contain DNA and the genetic instructions for the direction of all cell activity. They also carry genes that determine individual traits. Chromosome ?

15. Chromosomes are packets of DNA and proteins (histones) that are inside the cell nucleus. • Histone proteins help DNA coil up and formitsshape.

16. The body of chromosome (autosome) is a chromosome that encodes the proteins needed for the body's phenotypic and functional properties. • Example: autosomes of humans have a diploid genome that contains 22 pairs of autosomes. • Sex chromosome (sex chromosome) is a chromosome that encodes the sex of an individual. Chromosomes are divided into 2 types:

17. Consisting of 46 chromosomes (22 pairs of body chromosomes/autosome and 1 pairs of sex chromosomes) • Male genital chromosome: XY • Female genital chromosome: XX • Compilation of human chromosomes based on their sequence is called karyotype Human chromosome:

18. Human Chromosome

19. Human Karyotype

20. To detect chromosome abnormalities disorder, in order to help diagnose genetic diseases. • A chromosome disorder results from a change in the number or structure of chromosomes. Karyotyping: Chromosome Analysis

25. The chromosomes in the body/somatic cells are pairs of diploid • The chromosomes in gamete cells are half of the body cells haploid • Homologous chromosomes are a pairs of chromosomes originating from mother and father • Homologous chromosomes have the same gene at the same locus, the genes may contain different alleles.

27. Chromosomes containing the same type of genetic information • one comes from male parent, one comes from female parent Homologous Chromosomes

28. Homologous Chromosomes

31. Structure of DNA, RNA and Organization of Chromosomes in Organism

32. 1860 – Johann FriedriechMiescher • Isolating proteins from white blood cells • Get a different molecule with protein • This molecule is called "nuclein"  believed to originate from the nucleus • This nuclein is actually DNA History of DNA Discovery

33. 1885-1901 – Albrecht Kossel • Examining the chemical structure of "nuclein" • "Nuclein" consists of 5 nitrogen bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil • Albrecht Kossel was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1910 SejarahPenemuan DNA

34. 1940s – Avery Oswald • In collaboration with Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty found a molecule that can be transformed • Research on changes in the nature of non-pathogenic bacteria becomes pathogenic when mixed with pathogenic bacteria • There is material transformed in this event

35. 1950 – Erwin Chargaff • Find the amount of nitrogen bases in the structure of DNA • Amount of G = C and A = T • The composition of these nitrogen bases varies in various species • The invention was called the Chargaff law

36. Find out that the phosphate group is in the structure of DNA • Almost found a double strand structure 1951- 1953  Rosalind Franklin • Conducted research collaboration with Maurice Wilkins and Raymond Gosling • Successfully photographed the structure of DNA with X-ray diffraction

37. Find the structure of DNA double strand • Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 in Physiology or Medicine 1953- James Watson and Francis Crick

38. DNA structure ? RNA structure?

39. DNA: a polymer of deoxyribo-nucleotides. • Usually double stranded and double-helix structure. • Found in chromosomes, mitochondrias, Plasmids and chloroplasts. • It acts as the genetic material in most of the organisms. • Carries the genetic information DNA=Deoxyribonucleic acid

40. DNA Structure DNA structure is often divided into four different levels primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. DNA has three main components: 1. Deoxyribose (a pentose sugar) 2. Base (there are four different ones) 3. Phosphate 3 2 1

41. A, G, C or T A, G, C or U O O Base Base O P O P O O CH2 CH2 O O 5′ 5′ O– O– 1′ 4′ 1′ 4′ H H H H H H H H Phosphate Phosphate 3′ 2′ 3′ 2′ OH OH H OH Deoxyribose Ribose DNA Nucleotide RNA Nucleotide

43. DNA and RNA Structures

44. RNA DNA

45. DNA: Double Helix

46. RNA strand is almost same as DNA

47. RNA is a nucleic acid called Ribonucleic Acid Functions of RNA: • RNA transfers genetic information from the nucleus (DNA) to the cell (proteins) for use. • Makes up ribosomes (Ribosomes are approximately 60% rRNA and 40% protein by weight. A ribosome contains two subunits, the large ribosomal subunit and small ribosomal subunit). • Helps assemble (biosynthesis) proteins What is RNA?

48. Made up of a repeating strand of nucleotides, contains all 3 parts similar to DNA (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base) • The sugar in RNA is called Ribose • Contains the nitrogen base Uracil instead of Thymine. Uracil will bind to Adenine (like thymine did) • RNA is single strand The Structure of RNA(Similar to DNA with several key differences)

49. There are 3 types of RNA, each with a different job 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) 3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Each type of RNA has a different structure that is related to its function. Types of RNA :

50. mRNA- single strand that carries messages from the DNA to the cytosol, so that it can be used make proteins. Messenger RNA (mRNA)