Unit 4 The New Europe

1. Unit 4 The New Europe Chapter 20- We did it!

2. The Times, They are a Changin’ • In the last decades of the 20th century people assumed that cold war divisions were a way of life. • The fall of the soviet union and it’s satellite states were astonishing events. • 1989 marks the beginning of a new era in European history- we just don’t know where it is going yet….

3. Stalin died 1953- power struggle (again) New Leader Nikita Krushchev. (led 1953-64) 1956 gave “secret speech” where he said that Lenin wrote a letter before he died which criticized Stalin Secret speech most influential statement since Lenin’s April Thesis. Krushchev realized wide scale reform was needed, but Stalin had cult status (all that propaganda had worked) Lenin only person held more dear- this “letter” gave legitimacy The Breakup of the Soviet Union

4. Reforms: Loosening of gov’t censorship, restructuring collective farms, attempting “peaceful coexistance” in foreign policy (which sort of backfired with the Cuban Missile Crisis) Replaced 1964 by Leonid Brezhnev- who ended reforms Willingness to allow greater national variations of communism in satellites. (as long as the don’t go too far as Hungary did in 56) Austria had been occupied by USSR, given independence in return for political neutrality. Occasional crackdown- Berlin Wall 1961 De-Stalinization

5. Gosplan • Shift in resources from heavy industry to more consumer goods and agriculture- trying to prove communism could provide a better standard of living than the booming econs of Western Euro. • Began to woo trade with nonaligned nations without requiring communism

6. USSR under Brezhnev • Dictatorship Collective- through group of Politboro led by Brezhnev- rather than a personal cult like Stalin • After 1964 period of stagnation and re-stalinization (which was a poor plan). Massive arms buildup response to what they saw as “humiliation” in Cuban Missile Crisis • Brezhnev doctrine- USSR has the right to interfere in their satellites whenever they want (after Prague Spring)

7. Detente • During 1970s Nixon/Kissenger created a foreign policy based on easing tensions. • Back to RealPolitik- do what is good for your country rather than worry about ideology. • US recognized and visited China in 1972 (begin to play China and USSR off each other) and Moscow as well. • SALT I- 1972- discussion of missile reduction (actually we end up with more, we invent multiple warhead missiles.) • Détente ended with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1980 (Boycott Olympics)

8. Gorbachev Reforms • Brezhnev died 1982- replaced by Mikail Gorbachev- a communist of a new generation. More open to western reform and interaction than any Russian leader since Lenin. • Knew his country was in Trouble- trying to avoid disaster

9. Glasnost • “Openness”- allowing discussion of political, social, and econ issues. • Applauded, but caused problems as people began to express their anger and resentment towards the gov’t

10. Democratization • Wanted to keep communist structure, and allow a little democracy (prove to the world the USSR is NOT a dictatorship any longer) • Created Congress of People’s deputies- chosen by direct election and “President” elected by the Congress • March 1989 are the 1st elections since 1917

11. Perestroika • Economic reform, Gorbachev’s most radical, and least successful, idea. • Again, tried to keep soviet structure, but modernize from within. • Transferred gov’t planning powers to private, market resources (who used for their own profit) • Allowed privately owned companies, farm leases outside collectivization, and encouragement of joint ventures with foreign companies. • Epic fail by 1987

12. Rebellions in Eastern Europe 1989 Eastern Euro held behind “Iron Curtain” since 1945. As Gorbachev reformed USSR, Eastern Euro began to open as well

13. Poland: Solidarity Dissidence began in 1980- a labor movement called Solidarity led by Lech Walesa. (Inspired by Pope John Paul II’s visit to Poland where he made a number of speeches about the “inalienable rights of man”) Occupied factories to protest living conditions- gained widespread media coverage and public sympathy. Outlawed and driven underground By June of 1989 the Soviets have withdrawn their support of the communist gov’t, and it is collapsing. Free elections held, Solidarity candidates win big, Walesa becomes 1st elected leader since 1939. USSR’s failure to step in and effectively crush uprisings leads other satellites to follow along

14. Hungary October 1989. Had been trying to be allowed participation in free market uprising since 1956- jumped on the bandwagon Bloodless coup- Oct 26th gov’t leaders announce Hungary is now a republic

15. East Germany Dissidents active since early 80s- seeking reconnection with West. Gorbachev issued a statement allowing free passage from East to West Berlin- led to tearing down of entire wall and communist system being dismantled. July 1990- econs of East and West Germany merged, Oct 3rd 1990 Reunification USSR opposed (in theory) until Germany offered them a major aid package

16. Bulgaria November 1989 Did not have an organized reform movement, but when Berlin Wall fell, Politboro demanded leaders resign, purged Stalinist, and created a new gov’t Still not very open, liberal, or successful

17. Czechoslovakia Velvet Revolution. Again, they had been agitating for some time (since Prague Spring) 1977 Vaclav Havel: Charter 77- a protest against soviet regime Dec 1989 protests began again (encouraged by Alexander Dubcek who had been in prison since 68) and communists resigned. Smooth and bloodless. Vaclav Havel becomes president 1993 country splits, Czech Republic, and Slovakia to resolve ethnic issues

18. Romania Last of the 1989 coups. Ruled since 1960s by Nicolae Ceauseseu- probably the most repressive leader in eastern Europe (which is saying something) Tide turned when army rose against dictator in December – fairly bloody overthrow. Ceauseseu was tried for crimes against humanity and executed.

19. Albania Europe’s poorest country. Does not end communism in 1989, does it in 1991 with the fall of communism in USSR

20. Russian Revolution of 1991 Break apart of empire left them vulnerable. August 1991 “conservatives” (people against Gorbachev reforms- hardliners) led a coup to remove him from office. Coup failed when popular protests broke out- and army supported the protesters. Then a 2nd round of protests began (Led by Boris Yeltsin- president of the Congress) calling for even larger reforms. Gorbachev survived coup- but it was the death knell of the USSR. By December 1991 14 soviet republics has announced independence- there WAS no more USSR. Create weak C.I.S.- and are back to being “Russia” again

21. Long Term Causes • Cost of protecting and maintaining their “empire” was too high. Nationalist resentment of Soviet Republics high- esp in Baltics and Central Asia • Burgeoning middle class (after 1970s) demanding a voice in gov’t. • World wide econ problems of 1970s damaged even soviet econ.

22. After the Fall of Communism Transition to market econ has been slow and painful. Political stability has been difficult Boris Yeltsin became leader of the USSR in 1991. 1993 there was a power struggle between Yeltsin and Parliament- Yeltsin threatens gov’t with tanks. Insurgency in Chechnya (Muslim Russian Republic) Eastern Europe has had better success integrating into European Union- many soviet countries are now members of NATO

23. A New World Order 1990s a time of chaos and Humiliation for Russia. Vladimir Putin (became president in 2000) has tried to redefine Russia’s place in the world. They are no longer a superpower- have had to ask for aid from US (who gave it b/c they recognized that total collapse in Russia would have disasterous results.

24. US as a “Lone” Superpower US won the cold war by default- w/o the USSR there was no one to “fight” in it. After 9/11 the “war on terror” became the American prime directive (much as containment had been in the 50s). Began with hunt to destroy Al Qaeda and Osama Bin Laden. Shifted to Iraq and Saddam Hussein. US widely criticized in Europe fro pre-emptive strike against Iraq when WMDs did NOT appear.

25. Globalization and Supernationalism This new world order is still taking shape- international affairs are in flux. More and more countries are affected by supernational organizations. This reflects a trend toward integration- countries join together to gain political, economic and social clout. Some are regional (EU, NAFTA), some international (UN, Amnesty International) Blurs lines between domestic and international roles/needs. Interestingly, on some issues there is an opposite trend- fragmentation due to loyalty to an ethnicity, religion, or other group.

26. World Wide Organizations UN largest and most important- major goal is peacekeeping. They do that job through diplomacy (including sanctions) as well as actual intervention. Scope has broadened with time- giving birth to other organizations under their umbrella

27. World Trade Organization (WTO) Established in 1995- an organization of member states who have agreed to a set of trade rules among nations. 151 members- Russia/China the major exceptions WTO negotiates and implements trade agreements, settles disputes. Process of becoming a member unique to those who apply, depends on their stage of econ development- can be rejected if there are questionable practices (ex. China, human rights violations)

28. World Bank Created in 1944 to fund recovery in Europe after wwii- focus today is lending $$ to low income countries at modest interest rates to aid development. Also supports health care initiatives like vaccination.

29. Regional Organizations NATO and Warsaw Pact were heart of cold war standoffs. Warsaw disbanded with fall of communism, many of former members are now a part of NATO. Organization of American States (OAS), organization for African Unity (OAU) NAFTA, OPEC But the big one ins the EU

30. The European Union After wwii the focus of European relations shifted to widespread cooperation for the first time in the modern age It has not supplanted nationalism- there are no plans to merge countries politically, but Econ union has linked these nations in a way that would have seemed impossible a century ago. Council of Europe created the EEC which led to economic integration and then….

31. EU 1991 Maastricht Treaty created the current version- going from European Community to European Union- which took effect in 1992 New authority in monetary policy, foreign affairs, National security, environment etc… Proposed by German Chancellor Helmut Kohl and French President Francois Mitterand. Originally rejected by England- they still don’t use all of it (euro)

32. Three Pillars 1. Trade and Econ: Most importantly a single currency, the Euro. Also creation of a central bank 2. Justice and Home Affairs: Create unified policy for offering asylum, border crossing, and immigration 3. Common Foreign and Security Policies: including common defense, crime and anti- terrorism

33. Membership • There were 6 countries in Coal and Steel Union in 1956- now 27 EU member nations • (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, England, Demark, Ireland, Greece, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Cyprus, Czech, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bulgaria and Romania.) Croatia, Macedonia, and Turkey are under consideration • To be accepted as a member must provide evidence of 3 criteria • 1. Stable democratic regime • 2. Market Econ • 3. Willingness to accept EU regulations

34. Enlargement Fatigue As the # of countries has grown, organizational issues have become more complex. Older member states worry about increasing numbers of members from states with weaker econs (eastern Euro) France, Germany, and Austria seem particularly done with expansion- led fight AGAINST adoption of a European constitution in 2004. Only non members: Norway, Switzerland, Bosnia, Serbia, Belarus, Albania, Moldva, Ukraine, Russia

35. Organization: 4 major bodies1. The Commission • 27 members- 1 from each country, each responsible for an area of policy. Function as an executive- in charge in initiating and implementing new policies • Chosen by home country, but take an oath to the EU, supposed to put EU above national interests. Meet full time in Brussels

36. Council of Ministers Heads of gov’t in each member country (foreign ministers, finance ministers, presidents, P.M.s each country chooses what official to send) Meet every 6 months as European Council- the legislature of the EU. President of council rotates every 6 months- must vote on changes proposed by the commission. Proportional voting

37. European Parliament Directly elected by citizens in each country. May choose to add amendments or veto proposals from council of ministers (which can be overridden) Does not have a great deal of power.

38. European Court of Justice 27 judges. Supreme Court of EU- with power of judicial review. Interprets European law- even where that changes national sovereignty. More powerful than the judicial of any member state. May settle disputes among nations, companies, or individuals

39. Policymaking PowerSingle Market No tarriffs or trade barriers among members. Professional licenses (except lawyers) accepted in all member countries. More products available to consumers b/c goods are freely transported

40. Monetary Policy Euro has replaced national currencies (Sweden, Switzerland and England the major exceptions) EU can set basic interest rates and other fiscal policies through European Monetary Union

41. Agricultural Policy Not considered a successful department, even though ½ of EU budget goes there Goals is to modernize inefficient farming practices (a big job in E. Euro) and establish farming subsides (which are expensive) Shifting towards rural development rather than directly on farming

42. Common Defense One of 3 pillars, but again, not well developed. 1999 department created to focus on “crisis management” (Humanitarian issues, peacekeeping, rescue) EU can deploy as many as 60,000 troops- but has NOT created a European Army

43. Justice 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam allows free movement of EU members throughout union. Set policy for visas, asylum, and immigration. Cooperation among national police forces Britain, Ireland, and Denmark restrict participation in this department

44. Terrorism Has become an international issue since 2001. Bombings on transportation systems (Spain 2004, Britain 2005) have raised questions about ease of travel throughout union, border crossings etc…

45. Economic Issues 2007 EU econs were underperforming compared to the US (their GDP was 30% lower) Unemployment in Europe is consistently higher than US, they have also been slower to integrate many forms of technology. European workers are higher paid, and have excellent benefits, and they don’t want to lose them, but they cost $$. Current recession providing even greater challenges

46. US vs. European Capitalism US/Britain: Emphasis on free enterprise and market econ. Accepts greater inequalities that come with competition Europe: Social Market Econ- emphasizes cooperation between management and labor for the good of all. Stronger safety net/gov’t subsidies. See unrestricted competition as a threat.

47. Ethnic Tensions in Modern Europe Many have deep historical roots (Irish/Eng have been at it since William the Conqueror!) Ethnic boundaries in Eastern Europe have never been properly settled. Increasing numbers of non European immigrants causing racial issues

48. Ireland Ireland given home rule after wwi- except for Northern Ireland. IRA guerrilla (terrorist) tactics had been successful- mostly. Became independent in 1949 Northern Ireland remains controversial. Jan 1972- Bloody Sunday, British troops in N. Ireland killed, 13 Catholics caused escalation of terrorist attacks. 1998 Good Friday Agreements: British create a separate Parliament for N. Ireland (did not open until 2007) Threat of violence still there

50. Basques Ethnicity between border of Spain and France. 1959 formed ETA, a separatist group with Marxist ideology (which kept them from getting US support) When democracy was restored to Spain in 1978 they were given some autonomy- want their own country