The Learning Environment • Key Questions: • Is the individual trainable? • How should the training program be arranged to facilitate learning? • What can be done to ensure that what was learned in training will be retained and transferred to the job?
Overview of Session • LEARNING • Trainability • Motivation • Learning Environment • RETENTION • Meaningfulness • Interference • TRANSFER • Positive, Negative, None.
LEARNING: Trainability • ABILITY/TRAINEE READINESS • Pre-requisite trainee characteristics & skills needed for training. • (i.e., mental/quantitative ability, literacy, language; typing ability needed before training in computer program.) • Can be assessed during person analysis needs assessment. • MOTIVATIONISSUES • Attitudes: Do they want to be there? • Assumptions: Who is responsible for learning? • Expectations: What will they get out of this?
Applying Theories of Motivation to the Training Environment • REINFORCEMENT THEORY(Skinner) • Operant Conditioning • Outcomes that increase frequency of response: • Positive Reinforcement (give praise for good behavior) • Negative Reinforcement (remove punishment for good behavior) • Outcomes that decrease frequency of response: • Extinction (stop rewards for bad behavior) • Punishment (criticize/give punishment for bad behavior) • Timing & Schedules: Learning from the rats. • Reinforcement for one may be punishment for another. • Shaping: Use of successive approximations of goal behaviors.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY(Bandura) • People learn by watching role models: • Competent & knowledgeable • Like them • May only exhibit behavior when reinforced. • Modeling goal behavior key in training. • Learning affected by self-efficacy; can be increased by: • Verbal persuasion (“You can do it!”) • Logical verification (“It’s like that other thing you did.”) • Modeling (“See, others like you can do it.”) • Past Accomplishments (Once done, do it again to build a record. )
EXPECTANCY THEORY(Vroom) • Effort = Expectancy X (Sum of Instrumentalities X Valence). • Expectancy (effort-performance link) • Trainees have requisite ability; clarify roles & eliminate obstacles. • Does trainee have ability to learn? • Does trainee believe s/he can learn? • Instrumentality (performance-outcome link) • Show relation of training to valued outcome. • Does trainee believe training outcomes promised will be delivered? • Valence (value of outcome) • Are outcomes related to training valued?
EQUITY THEORY(Adams) & JUSTICE THEORY(Greenberg; Folger) • What is the input/outcome ratio? • Are outcomes associated with training fair? Is the training itself fair? • GOAL SETTING THEORY(Locke; Latham) • Set specific, challenging and obtainable goals for trainees. • Match goals to ability of individual. • Give feedback on progress. • NEED THEORIES(Maslow; McClelland; Alderfer) • Lower level needs (physiological, safety) must be met first. • Training in downsizing company? • Different individuals have different needs (social, esteem,security). • Spot high nAch: give them challenging tasks.
DESIGNING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT • Training sites and times • Agenda & Training Objectives • Room, seating, climate, breaks & schedule. • Practice: Give trainees opportunity to practice. • Over-learning • Makes response reflexive. • Increases retention & positive transfer. • Use when learning is simulated; response not natural. • Massed vs. Distributive Practice • Mental Models • Help trainees develop schemas that organize information. • Use own experience as a basis for learning.
Whole vs. Part Learning • Part Learning: Task complex or independent. • Whole learning: Task easy or interdependent. (shift). • Feedback • Important for learning and motivation; related to goal setting. • Effective use: • Immediate • Specific • Behavioral • Positive/shaping • Amount: not too little too late/ too much too soon. • Intrinsic feedback: from task itself. • Information gained from task analysis.
RETENTION • LEARNING • Degree of original learning • Practice • Over-learning. • Increase MEANINGFULNESS of material: • Show relation to valued outcomes. • Provide overview of training. • Use real-world examples. • Sequence material in logical order. • Break down complex skills to simple skills. • MOTIVATION
RETENTION INCREASED BY REDUCING INTERFERENCE • PROACTIVE: • Old material interferes with learning new material. • (Driving in England.) • RETROACTIVE: • New material interferes with retention of old material. • (Back in U.S.) • STIMULUS-RESPONSE SIMILARITY: • More similar S-R in new and old situation: less interference. • (Driving new car.)
TRANSFER OF LEARNING • TYPES: Positive, Negative, Zero. • STIMULUS GENERALIZATION THEORY • General principles are applicable to many work settings. • Applicable when work environment is unpredictable and changing • Example: training in interpersonal skills. • IDENTICAL ELEMENTS THEORY • Training environment is identical to work environment. • Applicable when work environment is predictable and stable. • Example: training to use equipment (same S-R). • COGNITION THEORY • Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of training content. • Cognitive maps useful in all types of training.
CLIMATE FOR TRANSFER • Management Support. • Peer Support. • Technological Support & Resources. • Opportunity to Perform. • Positive Reinforcement and Feedback. • Organizational culture: Learning Organizations • Encourage flexibility and experimentation. • Value critical thinking and sharing of knowledge. • Continuous learning ingrained in system. • Employees developed and valued.
SUMMARYGuidelines for Increasing Learning, Retention and Transfer • Maximize the similarity between training and the job. • Design training so that trainees can see its applicability. • Allow trainees to practice task. • Label or identify important features of task. • Use a variety of examples and show relevance of training for valued outcomes. • Make sure general principles are understood before expecting much transfer. • Build trainees’ self-efficacy and cognitive maps. • Make certain trained behaviors are rewarded on the job. • Use needs assessment and pilot test training.
LEARNING THEORY • OVERVIEW: • ADULT LEARNING THEORY • KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES • KOLB’S LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY
ADULT LEARNING THEORY • Pedagogy: art and science of teaching children. • Students are passive and dependent recipients. • Bring few experiences to learning environment. • Andragogy: theory of adult learning (Knowles, 1990). • Adult students are active learners. • Adults bring work-related experiences into the training environment. • Adults have the need to know why they are learning something; not motivated by gold stars or grades. • They are self-directed and active participants in the learning process. • They are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.
Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training (Knowles, 1990) • Adult’s Self Concept: Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction; control over process. • Experience: Use learner experience as a basis for examples and application. • Readiness: Develop instruction based on the learner’s interests and competencies; specialized training to meet trainees’ needs. • Time Perspective: Immediate application of content. • Orientation to Learning: Problem-centered instead of subject-centered.Applications over theory/lectures. Learning comes from others, not just instructor.
Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory • RANK EACH STATEMENT ACROSS: • 4 = MOST LIKE YOU • 3 = SECOND MOST LIKE YOU • 2 = THIRD MOST LIKE YOU • 1 = LEAST LIKE YOU • Example: • When I learn:__4__ I am happy _1__ I am fast _3__ I am logical _2__I am careful
Overview of LSI • CYCLES OF LEARNING • Four different learning modes. • No single mode completely describes an individual’s learning style. • Individual’s learning style is a combination of the four modes. • Relates to four-stage cycle. • Different learners start at different stages in the cycle. • Effective learning uses each stage.
SCORE LEARNING CYCLE PART OF LSI • How many in each learning mode: • Concrete experience ? • Reflective observation ? • Abstract conceptualization? • Active experimentation ?
STAGES OF LEARNING CYCLES • CONCRETE EXPERIENCE (CE) • Learning by FEELING. • Learning from specific experiences. • Relating to people; sensitivity to feelings & people. • REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION • Learning byWATCHING. • Careful observation before judgment. • Viewing from different perspectives; searching for meaning. • ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION • Learning by THINKING. • Logical analysis of ideas. • Systematic planning; intellectual understanding of situation. • ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION • Learning by DOING. • Ability to get things done. • Risk taking; influence people through action.
Example Application • Training on How to Interview for a Job: • Concrete Experience: Learning by feeling. • Role play job interview. • How would the interviewer/ee feel? • Reflective Observation: Learning by watching. • Watch effective and ineffective interviews. • Abstract Conceptualization: Learning by thinking. • Plan interview strategy. Research findings. • Active Experimentation: Learning by doing. • Practice, Practice, Practice.
LEARNING STYLES(Four Combinations of Learning Modes) • ACCOMODATOR (“Hands-On”) • Combination of Active Experimentation (doing) and Concrete Experience (feeling). • Learn from “hands on” experience. • Act on “gut feelings” rather than logical analysis. • Enjoy new and challenging experiences. • Rely on people for solving problems rather than own technical analysis. • Good for action-oriented careers(marketing, sales, public relations). • Strengths: • Gets things done. • Leadership. • Risk- taking.
Too much of this learning style: • Trivial improvements. • Spins wheels. • Meaningless objectives. • Too little of this style: • Work not completed on time. • Impractical plans. • Not directed towards goals. • Develop accomodator learning skills by: • Committing yourself to objectives. • Seek new opportunities for leadership and involvement. • Become personally involved in working with people.
CONVERGER(“Problem Solver”) • Combination of Abstract Conceptualization (thinking) and Active Experimentation (doing). • Best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. • Prefers to deal with technical tasks than social issues (“tinkerer”; “problem-solver.”) • Good for specialist and technology careers. (medicine, IT, engineer) • Strengths: • Problem solving. • Decision making. • Deductive reasoning. • Defining problems.
Too much of this learning style: • Solve the wrong problem. • Hasty decision making. • Too little of this style: • Lack of focus. • No testing of ideas. • Scattered thoughts. • Develop Converger learning skills by: • Experimenting with new ideas. • Practice making decisions and setting goals. • Practice rational problem solving.
DIVERGER(“Touchy-Feely”) • Combination of Concrete Experience (feeling) and Reflective Observation (watching). • View concrete situations from many viewpoints. • Observe rather than take action. • Enjoys brainstorming and gathering information. • Broad cultural interests. • Good for careers in arts, entertainment & service.(psychology, theater, journalism, HR, consultant) • Strengths: • Imaginative ability. • Understanding people. • Recognizing problems. • Brainstorming.
Too much of this learning style: • Paralyzed by alternatives; see too many options. • Can’t make decisions. • Too little of this learning style: • No ideas. • Can’t recognize problems and opportunities. • Develop Diverger learning skills by: • Increase sensitivity to people’s feelings. • Become more open to different viewpoints. • Gather information; develop brainstorming skills. • Imagine implications of uncertain situations.
ASSIMILATOR(“The Thinker”) • Combination of Abstract Conceptualization (thinking) and Reflective Observation(watching.) • Understands wide range of information; puts information into concise, logical forms. • Less focused on people, more focused on abstract ideas and concepts. • Enjoys logical theories. • Careers in information/science(research, law, librarian, math) • Strengths: • Planning and creating models. • Defining problems. • Developing theories.
Too much of this learning style: • Castles in the air. • No practical applications. • Too little of this learning style: • Unable to learn from mistakes. • No sound basis for work. • No systematic approach. • Develop Assimilator learning skills by: • Organizing information. • Building conceptual models • Testing theories and ideas. • Designing experiments.
CONCLUSION • Trainees have different learning styles. • Trainers have different learning styles. • Assess match and understand bias. • (don’t assume everyone learns like you.) • Use many different techniques that tap different learning styles: • feeling • doing • watching • thinking
