planning theory since 1945

1. planning theory since 1945 Pwk Pmd ft ub – planning theory

2. ‘System view’ of planning: Early post war planning theory: Cognitive rationality • Conception of planning: • Town planning as physical planning. • Design as central to town planning. • The assumption that town planning necessarily involved the production of'master' plans or 'blueprint' plans showing the same degree of precision inthe spatial configuration of land uses and urban form as the 'end-state‘blueprint plans produced by architects or engineers when designing buildings and other human-made structures.

3. Town planning as physical planning • Physical planning as opposed to 'social' and 'economic' planning. Keeble (1952, p. 1) put it on the first page of his book:“Town and Country Planning might be described as the art and science ofordering the use of land and the character and siting of buildings and communicative routes . . .” • Keeble suggested that town planning“may greatly assist in the realisation ofthe aims of these other kinds of planning'. Then implicit in thisstatement is an assumption that social and economic ends could be advanced by physical means • This thesis was appropriately termed physical,architectural or environmental determinism (see Broady, 1 968, Chap. I)

4. Town planning as physical planning • The third point concerns Keeble's assertion that town and country planning isnot 'political' planning ?. • Assuming that town and country planning was conceived of as physicalplanning, the question naturally arises as to what technical skills were thoughtrelevant, which brings us to the second component of the post-war conception of planning.

5. Town planning as urban design • The term 'civic' design was also much used • Town planning was regarded as an 'extension' of architectural design(or to a lesser extent civil engineering) in the literal sense of being concernedwith the design of whole groups of buildings and spaces - with 'townscape‘rather than the design of individual buildings and their immediate sites, andalso in the sense that architecture too was seen to be an exercise in the physical design of built forms.

6. Town planning as urban design • Architects who worked as town planner: • GB: Patrick Abercrombie, Frederick Gibberd and Thomas Sharp • Netherland: H.P. Berlage • Europe: Le Cor busier • Books written specifically about urban design, such as Frederick Gibberd's Town Design ( published in1953) , were regarded as standard texts on town planning

7. Town planning as urban design Shops Offices Government Entertainment Education Dwellings Centres and sub-centres Industry Open space Theoretical new town Source: Keeble, 1952 (1969), Figure 30

8. Town planning as urban design • Raymond Unwin - a leading exponent of this concern with aesthetics - stressed the need forbeauty in urban life: 'Not even the poor can live by bread alone' (cited in Creese, 1967, p. 71).

9. Town planning as urban design A plan for an urban region Source: Keeble, 1 952, Figure 1 1

10. Town planning as urban design A design for the centre of a theoretical new town Source: Keeble, 1952, Figure 78

11. The covers of Lewis Keeble's Principles and Practice of Town and Country Planning ( 1969 edition)

12. Town plans as detailed blueprints or 'master' plans • Plans were seen as 'blueprints' for the future form of towns - as statements of 'end-states' thatwould one day be reached. • The first generation of development plans local authorities wererequired to produce under the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 also adopted this approach. • Detailed zoning plans specified how particular siteswere to be used and developed • 'programming' plans that showed the stages at which the envisaged development of different partsof the plans would be carried out to 'complete' the plans.

13. Town plans as detailed blueprints or 'master' plans • Example: • Soria y Mata's nineteenth-century plans for linear cities • Le Corbusier'splans for the 'contemporary city' (and later the 'radiant city') • Frank Lloyd Wright's plans for 'BroadacreCity • Ebenezer Howard's 'Garden • City'

14. Conclusion • The plan was not just an approachto town planning as an exercise in physical planning and urban design but alsoa normative concept of the ideal urban environment. In other words, the tractsand textbooks published at the time not only advanced an extended definitionof planning but they also embodied certain values about the kinds of environmentwhich, it was believed, should be realised through town planning.

15. The values of post-war planning theory • The normative context: a culture of social reform and conservative sentiments. • A 'formal‘ or 'definitional' theory of planning: Town planning as an exercise in physical planning and design represented a particulartheory of what kind of an activity town planning is. • Post-war planning was also driven by a distinct set of values: They reflected the responses of social reformers and middle-classintellectuals to the dreary industrial cities which had grown up in the Victorian age,and were a curious mixture of radicalism and conservativism.

16. radical Utopianism: • Robert Owen – the creator of the famous model settlement of New Lanark - was both a pioneer of themodel village movement, which aimed to improve the living and working conditionsof working-class people, and an early socialist. • Ebenezer Howard's ideas for the creation of completely new 'garden cities', in which landwould be collectively owned, came to represent at the end of the century thedistillation and most complete expression of this radical Utopian socialism

17. Howard combined radical socialist proposalsfor the collective ownership of land in his garden cities with very traditionaland, in this respect conservative, notions of urban size and form (the socalled 'social democratic‘)

18. THE NORMATIVE THEORY UNDERLYING (BRITISH) POST-WARPLANNING • A normative theory of town planning: • a theory of how town planning should be approached • a theory of the kinds of urban environmentstown planning should seek to create • The deep values we hold often take the form oftaken-for-granted assumptions and norms and, because of this, our values areoften not explicitly articulated or analysed. • These values become apparent when we examine the kind of urban environments that were judged by plannersat the time to be of high quality or 'ideal'.

19. THE NORMATIVE THEORY UNDERLYING (BRITISH) POST-WARPLANNING • Four broad planning principles of post war planning: • the general approach to creating better cities. This approach can be described as 'Utopian comprehensiveness‘. • the general aesthetic values which informed (British) post-war planning. • the view most town planningtheorists took of the ideal urban structure, namely, a highly ordered view of urban structure. • a general assumption that all these principles were self-evidentand thus 'commonsense' principles in themselves, commanding a consensusamongst all sections of the population (assumed consensus over the aims of planning.)

20. Utopian comprehensiveness • Three aspects of the post-war 'Utopian comprehensive' approach to planning: • typical expressions of modernist 'functional' design andaesthetics (e.g. Antonio Sant'Elia's La Citta Nuova, Tony Garnier's La Cite Industrielle and Le Corbusier's Ville Radieuse). In appearance, the form of the modern city was one of plain, geometrical, 'functional‘buildings standing at regular intervals in a sea of 'free-flowing' space.

21. Antonio Sant'Elia's sketch for La Citta Nuova, 1914

22. Rational planning since 1960S Pwk Pmd ft ub – planning theory

23. System Theory and Rational Pl theory • Pendekatan Rational planning dicontohkanpada text book karya Brian McLoughlin's Urban and Regional Planning: A Systems Approach (1969); dankarya Andreas Faludi, melaluibukunyaygterkenal: Planning Theory and A Reader in Planning Theory. • Teoriinimerepresentasikanoptimismedari modernist.

24. System theory • Idedasardari System Theory adalahanggapanbahwadesa, kotadanwilayahadalahsebuahsistemyngtersusundaribagian-bagian yang salingberhubungan (interconnected and interdependence). System: A City is as a living organism: • “A city can be viewed as a system in which its parts are different land-use activities interconnected via transport and other communications media, i.e. a land-use/ transport system (page 62)” • Ketikadipahamibahwakotamerupakansistem yang komplek, maka planner harusbenarpaham ‘how cities worked’

25. Ketikadipahamibahwakotamerupakan interrelated system daritempatdankegiatanmakaperubahandarisatubagianakanmempengaruhibagianlainnya. • Ditandaidenganberkembangnya ‘teorilokasi’ dankebutuhandisiplin planner dg latarbelakang economic geography dan social sciences. • Dipahamibahwa planning is not end state blueprints. “Systems theory, with its emphasis on activity, dynamism and change, suggested the need for more adaptable flexible plans”

26. Pemahamanterhadap planning sebagaiongoing process of monitoring, analysing and intervening in fluid situations. • ‘Quantitative revolution’ dipromosikanoleh geographers (location theory – menggantikan design theory) sehingga planning lebih ‘scientific’ than ‘art’. • Padaakhirnyaadalahpemahamanterhadapecological setting.

27. Rationality in planning: Rational planning process was described as a model of rational decision making process (rather than a rational action model)

28. Rational planning • “Melvin Webber: 'I understand planning to be a method for reaching decisions, not a body of specific substantive goals . . .planning is a rather special way of deciding which specific goals are to be pursued and which specific actions are to be taken . . . the method is largely independent of the phenomena to be planned' (Webber, 1 963, cited in Duhl, 1963, p. 320 )” .

29. Andreas Faludimembedakanantara 'substantive‘ planning theories about the object ( i.e. planning deals with the environment) dan'procedural' planning theories about the process or procedures of going about planning. • Faludimendeskripsikansubstantive theories sbgtheories in planning, danprocedural theories as theories of planning. • Planning as a process diawalioleh dictum Patrick Geddes: Survey – Analysis – Plan (SAP)

30. The quantification of factors relevant to policy ( such as traffic flows) was the hallmark of 'being scientific'; hence, if something could not be quantified (such as the beauty of a place) then it was not considered to be scientific (and hence often marginalised in policy-making).

31. Tigakondisi yang harusdipenuhioleh rational planning: • pertama, alasankeputusanperencanaanharusdipikirkansecaramendalam - decisions should be arrived at by considered reflection rather than by guesswork, 'hunch' or intuition alone. • Alasanpengambilankeputusanharuslahexplicit. • each and every stage of a planning process should be carefully and explicitly thought through.

32. The rational process model menyatakandirisebagai model normatifatautheory of planning daninidilakukanolehparaahliteori rational process tahun 1960an dan 1970an sebagaimanaFaludimengatakan ( 1973a, p. 116 ): 'It i s only as a normative model that the rational planning process has any meaning at all.‘

33. Rational Comprehensive vs Disjointed Incremental Planning (as being ‘strategic’) issues: • persyaratanbahwa rationalitymemerlukancomprehensiveness • keterbatasanwaktu, sumberdaya, dsbmerupakankenyataanbahwa comprehensiveness adalahimposible Lindblommenyampaikan proposal berupasuatupendekatan yang diaklaimlebihrelevanthdperencanaandanpengambilankeputuandidunianyata. Diamengusulkanbahwa “in most situations, planning has to be piecemeal, incremental, opportunistic and pragmatic, and that planners who did not or could not operate in these ways were generally ineffective. In short, Lindblom presented a model of the 'real world‘ planning as necessarily 'disjointed' and 'incremental', not 'rational' and 'comprehensive' “.

34. conclusion • BerdasarkanpendapatFaludi ( 1973, Chap. 1) terdapatperbedaanantara substantive dan procedural planning theories: “the systems view of planning, being a theory about the 'substance' (the environment) which town planning deals with, was a substantive theory, whilst the rational process view was clearly a procedural theory of planning”. • Rational-cybernetics-modernist

35. Radical planning • berkembangpada era 1990an. Dalambuku Montgomery, J. and Thornley, A. 1 990: Radical Planning Initiatives: New Directions for Urban Planning in the 1 990s, Aldershot, Gower. • berkembangsebagaialiranneomodernist. Lahirsebagaisuatu protest thd modernity. “Philosophically such modernity has proved disappointing; and the citizens of settler societies are now aware that it creates generational and ethnic disparities and a form of consumerism which is neither improving nor uplifting, and an ever-increasing resource degradation where demand exceeds the potential to supply, and a level of pollution where dumping exceeds the environment’s absorptive capacity.” (Riddle, 2004 page 22)

36. Radical ‘A’ Conscience-raising theory(Habermas 1979, 1984, 1986) The Habermasian emphasis on ‘communicative action’ in association with ‘instrumental action’ (the Frankfurt School 1951: Adorno and others) is concerned with connecting improved and undistorted communication (‘idealspeech’) to better social science. This, for planning, means a raising of the level of social conscience for planners, their political mentors, and the participating public. This positions planners, in particular, to operate as both mediators and critics. In the context of the Jungian mantra ‘thinking feeling sensing intuiting’ to raise the level of participatory conscience (social listening) and to recognize unconscious distortions and mis-communications. A planning (non-philosopher) connection can be traced to the ‘advocacy’ writings of Davidoff (1965) and Healey (1996).

37. Radical ‘B’ Liberty–equality theory (consult Rawls 1971) This is the most ‘ethical’ of the philosophies which transect with planning, because it incorporates the dominant moral ideals of ‘liberty and justice’ with transdisciplinary ideals for social opportunity, fairness and equality. Harper and Stein (1993) hold to the view that Rawls ‘offers the most promising procedural NET (normative ethical theory) for planners’ which practitioners in Australasia should be cautioned to appraise ‘regionally’ relative to this theory’s derivative association with a wider basis of recognition of inequality in the USA. Urmson and Ree (1989) identify a philosophical trace from Locke, Rousseau and Kant through to Rawls.

38. Radical ‘C’ Social transaction theory (consult Popper 1974) To planners on both sides of the Atlantic (Friedmann, USA, 1987; Reade, UK, 1987) a Popparian transect with ‘best practice’ for local planning can be identified. Popper’s approach is dialectical, involving ‘piecemeal social engineering’ as a transactive process. And although planners will discern much in common between Habermas, Rawls and Popper, all three found it necessary to disagree, as philosophers are wont. A difficulty presented by Popper’s dialectical approach for active planning practitioners is his clear abhorrence of proactive embodiment in preference to an individualized discursiveness ‘out of the collective loop’.

45. See you in week 3