1. Research MethodsChapter 2

2. The Scientific Approach • Assumes that events are governed by some lawful order. • Scientific enterprise is based on the belief that there are consistencies or laws that can be uncovered.

3. Goals of Scientific Enterprise • Measurement and description- figure out ways to measure the subject that is being studied. • Understanding and prediction- events can be understood when the reason for the occurrence can be explained. Hypotheses are predictions that are made and tested to evaluate understanding. • Application and control- The information gathered from research findings should apply towards practical problems.

4. Steps in Scientific Investigation

5. Advantages of the Scientific Approach • Provides clarity and precision- the scientific approach requires that people specify exactly what they are talking about when they formulate hypotheses. • Intolerance of error-yields more accurate and dependable information because objective data and thorough documentation is demanded before ideas are accepted.

6. Experimental Research • The investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result. • cause-and effect relationship studies use experimental research. • Consists of Independent/Dependent variables, Experimental/Control groups, and Extraneous variables.

7. Experimental Research • Independent variable- a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable (inputs or causes). • Dependent variable- the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable (output or effect). • Experimental group-consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the IV. • Control group- consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group. • Extraneous variables- any variables other than the IV that seem likely to influence the DV in a specific way.

8. Experimental Research Advantages Disadvantages Manipulations and control often make experiments artificial. Practical realities and ethical concerns make it impossible to conduct experiments on many issues. • Permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. • Able to draw conclusions about causation because the control allows for isolation between IV and DV while neutralizing the effects of EV.

9. Descriptive/Correlational Research • Only allows researchers to see whether there is a link or association (correlation) between the variables of interest. • Can not manipulate the variables under study. • Naturalistic observations, case studies, and surveys are all examples.

10. Correlation • Exists when two variables are related to each other. • Positive and Negative correlation

11. Correlation Correlation Coefficient Correlation and Prediction As a correlation increases in strength, the ability to predict on variable based on knowledge of the other variable increases. Prediction- the stronger the correlation, the better one can predict. Causation- correlation is not equivalent to causation. • A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables. • Positive (between 0 and +1.00) • Negative (between 0 and -1.00) • A correlation near zero = no relationship between variables • +1.00 or -1.00 is a perfect one to one correspondence between variables. The closer to either one the stronger the relationship.

12. Examples of Specific Methods • Naturalistic Observation- a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. • Reactivity can occur when subjects notice the observer’s presence. • Surveys- use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants'’ background and behavior. • Make it easy to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large samples of participants. • Case Studies- an in-depth investigation of an individual subject. • Ex: psychological autopsies

13. Descriptive/Correlational Research Advantages Disadvantages Can not demonstrate that two variables are causally related. • Broadens the scope of phenomena that psychologists can study . • Can explore issues that could not be examined with experimental methods.

14. Common Flaws in Research • Studies are replicated to see whether the earlier results are duplicated. • Sampling bias- exists when a sample is not representative of the population. • Placebo effects- occurs when participants‘ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty or fake treatment. • Distortions in self-report data- result from problems, such as social desirability bias and response sets, that happen when participants give verbal accounts of their behavior. • Experimenter bias- occurs when researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.

15. Internet- Mediated Research • Studies in which data collection occurs over the web. • All of the previous methods can be used in internet-mediated research. • Ex: web survey with 1100 online participants respond to measures of martial closeness and depressive symptoms to explore the correlation between marital adjustment and depression.

16. Ethical Issues • The question of deception- should researchers be permitted to mislead participants. • Yes, otherwise important issues could not be investigated . Empirical evidence suggests that deception is not harmful to subjects. • No, deception is inherently immoral and may undermine participants’ trust in others. Deceptive studies often create stress for subjects

17. Ethical Issues • The question of animal research- Should researchers be permitted to subject animals to harmful or painful procedures. • Yes, otherwise important issues could not be investigated. Relatively little animal research involves pain or harm. • No, animals are entitled to the same rights as humans. Animal studies are often trivial or may not apply to humans.