Lecture Two: A War Within a War?

1. Lecture Two: A War Within a War? Objectives: To identify priorities of the different allies To explain areas of conflict between the allies To evaluate how strong the alliance between the US, Britain and USSR actually was

2. A Grand Alliance? • In 1941, the USSR entered World War Two when Hitler launched a surprise invasion. Despite Stalin’s preparations, the Germans made huge advances into Soviet territory at a cost of hundreds of thousands of Soviet lives. • By the end of 1941, the United States also entered the war after the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbour. The three major nations now fighting against the Nazis – the United States, the Soviet Union and Britain formed the Grand Alliance. Despite cooperating against their common enemy, there were key differences between the allies from the start which put in question how long their alliance would last after the war. • The United States wanted to defeat Germany and restore stability to Europe as quickly as possible, and to create conditions it could trade and be successful in. • The Soviet Union wanted to inflict a decisive defeat on Germany which would ensure it would not be able to do such devastating damage to the USSR again. They also wanted to create a “sphere” of communist friendly countries around its border. • Britain wanted to preserve its empire and to remain a major power in Europe. Churchill wanted to avoid the USSR using the war to massively expand its territory. Key Issue: Why could there have been tension between the USSR and its allies, even during World War 2?

3. Conflict of Interest • As well as the ideological conflict between communism and capitalism, the political interests and aims of the Allies meant that they did not always fight the Second World War for the same reasons. • Britain wanted to survive as a great power, with its empire intact. Despite his hostility before the war, Churchill did want to remain on good terms with the USSR after the war ended, but he was worried about Stalin using the war to expand Soviet territory. As Britain had gone to war to protect Poland in 1939, they also wanted at least some democratic government in that country. • The Soviet Union also wanted to continue cooperation with the United States and Britain after the war. Stalin even abolished the Comintern as a sign of his good faith. However he was determined the USSR would have security from future attacks and wanted an area under Soviet control and also foresaw an “intermediate” zone of neutral countries between Soviet territory and Western Europe Pause for thought: What areas of conflict can already be seen here?

4. The United States – Ally or Rival? • The Historiography of the Cold War offers several possible opinions of the United States’ actions and attitudes towards its allies: • Early historians suggested that the United States had no clear idea of its goal for the post-war world, especially in Europe. • Revisionists have argued that United States did have objectives for its own post war security. The Japanese attack at Pearl Harbour, it has been argued, showed the Americans that they could no longer afford a policy of isolation and that like the USSR, they wanted to create a post-war world in which they would be secure. • The United States did promote its own agenda after joining the war, objecting to British plans when they felt Churchill was trying to use them to “prop up” the British Empire. • President Roosevelt handled his relationship with Stalin with care, and often allowed Stalin to get most of what he wanted

5. The Tehran Conference28 November – 1 December 1943 The three leaders, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill met in Tehran to reach agreements on how to defeat Germany and also to make some agreements about how Europe might look after the war. They agreed: • The US and Britain would invade Europe from the west, taking pressure off of the USSR in the East. Churchill had wanted an invasion through the Balkans, to stop the Soviet Union taking too much territory for himself. Roosevelt managed to persuade him not to oppose Stalin this way. • The Soviet Union would join the war against Japan once Germany had been defeated • The USSR would be allowed to re-annex parts of Poland, but Poland would be compensated with land from Germany Pause for thought: Why do you think Roosevelt agreed to this plan?

6. Poland – The First Crack Poland was one of the first areas where the aims of the allies collided. Britain particularly wanted to avoid Poland falling under complete communist control as it had gone to war in 1939 as a response to Hitler’s invasion. As well as this, the Polish government in exile was based in London and Polish soldiers and pilots had fought for Britain during the war. The USSR saw Poland as key to its future security. Stalin was worried about future German aggression and other threats from Western Europe. It was key to Stalin that a communist-friendly government take power in Poland. The US and Britain both hoped that Stalin would still tolerate some sort of democratic government in Poland.

7. Poland – Stalin’s Strategy • When the Red Army invaded Poland, they destroyed the Nazi occupation, but this was not Stalin’s only aim. The Polish government in London was supported in the country by a nationalist resistance movement – the Polish Home Army. • Stalin was determined not to allow this group to take power, and the Polish government was highly suspicious of the Soviet “liberation.” • The Home Army took control of Warsaw in order to prevent the Red Army taking control of the capital. However they were defeated by the Germans, and the Soviet Army, although only 20 miles away, did nothing to help them. Pause for thought: How did these events favour Stalin?

8. Eastern Europe – Cooperation or Rivalry? Although Stalin wanted the Soviet Union to gain power and influence in Europe, he was keen to respect the idea of “spheres of influence.” On several occasions, he held back possible communist gains to avoid confrontation with his allies. In Greece especially, Stalin refused to aid a Yugoslavia-sponsored communist revolution because he saw it as being well within Britain’s “sphere.” Pause for thought: Why do you think Stalin was keen to promote the idea of “spheres of influence?” Is this a sign of cooperation or rivalry between the Allies?

9. Italy and France – Rivalry within Cooperation • When Britain and the US defeated the fascist Italian government and the subsequent Nazi occupation of Italy, the USSR made enquiries about being involved in the rebuilding of Italy. They were firmly told they would not have a part to play as they had not taken part in the fighting. • Stalin was happy to accept this because it suggested that the US and Britain could not expect to be involved in rebuilding Eastern Europe. He even pushed Italian communists to cooperate with the new government. Even better for Stalin, this cooperation led to the increased popularity of communism in Italy. • Paris was liberated from German control in August 1944. The leader of the Free French (the French government in exile), Charles De Gaulle immediately started planning to rebuild French power and influence in Europe, and to counter American and British domination. He signed a defensive alliance against future German aggression with the USSR in December 1944

10. Yalta – The End of the Beginning The three leaders met for the final time at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. At this point, they knew that they were going to win the war and the meeting focussed on post war issues: • Germany would be occupied by the three allies and France. The country and the capital, Berlin, would be divided into occupation zones. • The Nazi Party would be banned, and war criminals tried in an international court. • The United Nations would be set up, and all three allies would be permanent members of the security council. However the allies were only able to reach a vague agreement about Poland. There was an agreement to democratic politicians being involved from all sides, but Stalin was confident he could exploit the language of the compromise to get what he wanted, whilst Churchill and Roosevelt could claim they had secured a deal for Poland to have a freely elected government.

11. 1942-1945: Conclusions? Germany surrendered unconditionally and simultaneously to the Soviet Union, the United States and Britain on May 7, 1945. The Grand Alliance had achieved its aims: • Europe was liberated from Nazi occupation • The Nazi Party itself was destroyed • The USSR reclaimed the land it had lost in the Nazi invasion • Britain had, for the moment, survived as a major power • The United States had restored a stable environment to trade in. However, the alliance still had important issues to answer about the post war world and its ability to remain united in it.