1. Theory and Methods

2. Learning Theory • Define: The more or less permanent change in behaviour potentiality which occurs as a result of repeated practice. • The change could be permanent or temporary • The behaviour does not necessarily have to be observable (fMRI)

3. Learning Theory • Classical (Respondent) Conditioning (or Pavlovian Conditioning) • Pavlov and Watson - conditioned reflex method • Reflex - a biologically determined behaviour that is always elicited by a particular stimulus • Behaviour is called respondent behaviour

4. Learning Theory • Elements of classical conditioning • US (unconditioned stimulus) • UR (unconditioned response) • CS (conditioned stimulus) • It can be perceived and attended • Does not elicit UR itself • CR (conditioned response) • Occurs before UR • Smaller in magnitude than UR • Form of response may be different than UR

5. Schematic of Elements CR UR CS US CS US

6. Learning Theory • Elements of classical conditioning (cont.) • CS preceeds US • CS overlaps with US in time

7. Example of Acquisition & Extinction

8. Learning Theory • Operant Conditioning (learning) • Skinner believed in operant behaviours that are not reflexes but are emitted due to their consequences • Response/reinforcer (reward) association • Behaviour is an instrument to attain some end • Example: rats in a maze to get food

9. T-maze

10. Learning Theory: Operant • Thorndike - Law of Effect • Responses which produce rewards (or positive consequences) will tend to increase in frequency • Example: infants and footkicking

11. Learning Theory: Operant • Negative reinforcers • A response that has the consequence of removing something unwanted • Punishers • Consequences that reduce the expression of a behaviour

12. Learning Theory • Habituation • Simplest form of learning • Most often used with infants • Like classical conditioning, starts with a reflex • With repeated exposure to the eliciting stimulus, response declines • Dishabituation - the recovery of the reflex response when a new eliciting stimulus is presented

13. Learning Theory • Habituation (cont.) • most commonly habituated reflexes are the orienting response and the startle response • Kellman & Spelke (1983) Unitary Object Test Two Object Test Habituate

14. Social Learning Theory • Albert Bandura • Observational learning • Previous learning was active, whereas in some learning the child is passive and just observes • Imitation - Meltzoff • deferred imitation

15. Ethology • Study of development from an evolutionary perspective • Imprinting - interaction between biology and environment • Lorenz and chicks • Language • Visual deprivation

16. Research Methods • Theory - A set of expressions put forth as an explanation of facts and empirical findings • A good theory makes predictions as yet unknown facts • called a hypothesis • need to test hypothesis

17. Hypothesis Testing

18. Research Methods • Two requirements for testing: • 1) objective methods • 2) measurable behaviors - morality

19. Types of Research • Descriptive - observing and recording • Correlational - describes the relation between two variables • measured on a -1.00 to 1.00 scale (correlation coefficient) • severe limitation - correlation does not indicate causality

20. Correlations

21. Types of Research • Experimental - purpose is to draw cause-and-effect conclusions • one variable is manipulated - Independent variable • effect on the other variable is measured - Dependent variable

22. Developmental Research • Need to take into account time • Longitudinal • same subject is studied repeatedly at different ages • can be either correlational or experimental

23. Developmental Research • Longitudinal (cont.) • typically, two types of questions • 1) Stability • 2) Early Experience Effects • Problems - • subject loss • repeated testing effects • length of the study

24. Developmental Research • Cross-sectional • study children at different ages to examine differences in behavior at different ages • Problem • cannot study stability or earlly experience effects • cohort effect - differences are due to different age populations being members of different generations

25. Developmental Research • Longitudinal/Cross-Sectional Combo • also called cross-sequential design • can test for cohort effects & repeated testing • examine stability and age differences • Microgenetic • Examining a small group begining at an age where major development • Example: Perception • Again, problem of repeated testing

26. Cross-sequential design

27. Developmental Research • Case Studies • typically used in clinical research • study a single individual • Problem of generalizing conclusion to whole population

28. Developmental Research • Cross-Cultural • Comparative • compare species • to examine evolutionary issues • mostly, to do studies not possible in humans