Learning Outcomes

1. Genes and Body plansHow does an organism become a zygote?How do the different parts of an organism know which way is “up”?

2. Learning Outcomes Explain that the genes that control development of body plans are similar in plants, animals and fungi, with reference to homeobox sequences (HSW1); • Key words… • Homeobox genes • Transcription factor • Homeosis • Polarity genes • Body plan • Morphogen • Maternal-effect genes • Segmentation genes

3. What do homeobox genes do? • Homeobox genes code for the production of transcription factors • These proteins can bind to a particular region of DNA and cause it to be transcribed • A single homeobox gene can switch on a whole collection of other genes, regulating gene expression

4. Homeobox genes • Homeobox genes determine how an organism’s body develops as it grows from a zygote into a complete organism. • They determine the organism’s body plan • These sequences are highly conserved • Homeobox genes have been discovered in animals, plants and fungi

5. Homologous homeobox genes • These are the sequences of 60 amino acids in the proteins coded for by the homeobox genes Antp in a fruit fly and HoxB7 in a mouse. • All animals have homologous homeobox genes – they are recognisably similar. Why is this significant?

6. Key words – homeobox, maternal effect and polarity genesWhat are they? What do they mean? • Homeobox genes control the development of the body plan of an organism, including the polarity (head and tail ends) and positioning of the organs • Maternal effect genes determine the embryo’s polarity • Polarity genes Help to define the anterior and posterior polarities within each embryonic segment of an organism, such as in the fruit fly

7. Homeosis - when one part of a developing embryo becomes anomalously transformed into another (mutation)

9. Write a summary to describe what is happening in this diagram as the drosophila fly develops from an embryo. Use the key words to help you (you may not need all of them) • Key words… • Homeobox genes • Transcription factor • Homeosis • Polarity genes • Body plan • Morphogen • Maternal-effect genes • Segmentation genes

10. Name the type of gene, if mutated, gives rise to dramatic changes in body plan Homeobox gene

11. Drosophila melanogaster – the fruit fly A model animal for the study of genetics and gene regulation The body of insects is segmented This is obvious in larvae (e.g. maggots) In adults these become specialised -many develop special appendages

12. - antennae Head Segments - labial palps (mouth appendages) Thoracic Segments - legs - wings - halteres (balancing organs) Abdominal Segments - no appendages Identity of each segment is established in the embryo Mutations can destroy the identity of a segment (more on this later)

13. Homeosis in Drosophila Wings for halteres Legs for antennae These changes are the results of mutations in a set of genes (homeosis) In this instance, are mutations a good thing? Halteres for wings

14. Homeobox genes have been found in: • worms • snails • starfish • fish • mice • humans

15. Summary • These genes are homeotic (regulatory) containing _______base pairs forming the ____________sequence that codes for a gene product which binds to DNA and initiates ______________. In this way they switch genes that control the development of a _________ ______on or off. • These genes show little mutation because they are very _____________. Mutation would have big effects and alter the body plan causing many other genes to be affected. Any mutation is likely to be ___________and so selected against

16. Write a summary to describe what is happening in this diagram as the drosophila fly develops from an embryo. Use the key words to help you (you may not need all of them) • Key words… • Homeobox genes • Transcription factor • Homeosis • Polarity genes • Body plan • Morphogen • Maternal-effect genes • Segmentation genes

17. Model answer The body plan of the drosophila fly is controlled by the homebox genes. These contain transcription factors that regulate other genes so that the body plan develops normally. Transcription factors act like on/off switches for gene expression. Some of these genes are maternal-effect genes. They will determine the polarity of the embryo. This means which end is the front and which is the back. Segmentation genes are another group of genes that determine the dorsal and ventral ends of specific segments of the fly’s body.

18. Effect of thalidomide in embryo development • Homeobox genes HoxA11 and HoxD11 switch on genes that cause forelimb development. • The drug thalidomide affected the behaviour of these homeobox genes at a critical stage in embryonic development.

19. Retinoic acid and birth defects • Retinoic acid • is a derivative of vitamin A • activates homeobox genes in vertebrates • Is a morphogen(substance governing pattern of tissue development). • If a pregnant woman takes too much Vitamin A, it can interfere with the expression of homeobox genes causing birth defects in the central nervous system and axial skeleton.

20. Write a short note to summarise the effects of retinoic acid and vitamin A on homebox genes and development.

23. Homeobox genes show astonishing similarity across widely different species of animal, from fruit flies, which are insects, to mice and humans, which are mammals. The sequences of these genes have remained relatively unchanged throughout evolutionary history and the same genes control embryonic development in flies and mammals. • (a) State what is meant by a homeobox gene. [2] • (b) Homeobox genes show ‘astonishing similarity across widely different species of animal’. • Explain why there has been very little change by mutation in these genes.[2] • (c) Frogs reproduce by laying eggs in water. Each egg develops into a tadpole, which has external gills to extract oxygen from the water, and a tail to help it swim. The tadpole gradually changes into an adult frog as it grows. During this time its gills and tail disappear. • List two cellular processes that must occur during the development of a tadpole into a frog. [2] • (d) Name another kingdom of organisms, other than animals, that have similar homeotic genes.[1]

25. Homeobox animation • http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/37/concept/index.html • If you have time, sit and watch this animation, as well as investigating other aspects of this web site.