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SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM. AP Euro C.O. 9. I. The Scientific Revolution Medieval view of the world 1. Primarily religious and theological 2. Political theory based on “divine right”

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SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM

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  1. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, THE ENLIGHTENMENT, & ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM AP Euro C.O. 9

  2. I. The Scientific Revolution • Medieval view of the world 1. Primarily religious and theological 2. Political theory based on “divine right” 3. Society governed by Church views and practices 4. Superstition played a major role 5. Scientific thought in early 1500s still based on Medieval ideas

  3. B. Causes of the Scientific Revolution 1. Medieval universities a. By 1300, philosophy had become an accepted discipline b. Medieval philosophers developed a degree of independence from theologians; sense of free inquiry c. Leading universities established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and physics within their departments of philosophy. d. Major scientific figures either studied or taught at universities.

  4. 2. Renaissance stimulated science by rediscovering ancient mathematics -- Renaissance patronage was often was often scientific as well as artistic and humanistic 3. Navigational problems on sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion created a need for scientific advances 4. Scientific methodology developed a. Bacon: empirical research b. Descartes: deductive reasoning

  5. C.The Scientific Revolution became the major cause of the new world view that developed in the 16th and 17th centuries. 1. Secularism emerged and many educated people became openly hostile to religion 2. The revolution in learning became a major foundation in Western society

  6. 1. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) a. On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres (1543) b. Heliocentric view:Sun is center of the universe while the earth revolves around the sun -- Seemed to challenge the book of Genesis in the Bible that put forth the geocentric view D. 16th Century

  7. Illustration published in On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres, 1543

  8. c. Religious reaction -- Martin Luther and John Calvin condemned Copernicus’ view -- Catholic church reaction initially not severe as it did not always interpret the Bible literally -- By 1616, the Church proclaimed the Copernican view false and persecuted those who advanced his views (e.g. Galileo)

  9. 2. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) • Europe’s best astronomer in the late-16th century • Built best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on the cosmos • His data later proved Copernican theory -- Ironically, he did not accept the Copernican view

  10. Brahe’s quadrant was among the largest of his era and allowed him to make minute measurements of the cosmos. The king of Denmark gave him the island of Hveen to use for his observatory.

  11. 3. Johann Kepler(1571-1630) a. First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe b. Mathematically proved heliocentric universe

  12. c. 3 laws of planetary motion: • Orbits are elliptical • Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits • The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun

  13. Kepler’s Model of the Solar system

  14. Kepler’s “Edifice” of Astronomy, located on the frontispiece to his 1623 Rudolphine Tables

  15. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) a. Developed laws of motion using the experimental method -- acceleration -- inertia b. Use of the telescope validated Copernicus’ heliocentric theory E. The 17th Century

  16. Galileo’s use of the telescope demonstrated that the moon was not a smooth orb, as had been previously thought.

  17. c. Galileo’s findings became controversial in the Catholic church -- Inquisition of Pope Urban VIII forced Galileo to retract his heliocentric views -- Galileo sentenced to house arrest

  18. 2. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) a. Formalized empiricism that had already been used by Brahe and Galileo b. Inductive method for scientific experimentation • “Renounce notions and begin to form an acquaintance with things.”

  19. Frontispiece to the “History of Royal Society of London.” Bacon is located on the front right.

  20. 3. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) a. Discourse on Method: advocated deductive method -- “cognito ergo sum”: “I think, therefore I am” b. Demonstrated relationship between geometry and algebra c. Cartesian Dualism: divided all existence into the spiritual and material --- The spiritual: logic -- Material: empiricism

  21. 4. Modern Scientific Method: Inductive method (Bacon) + Deductive method (Descartes)

  22. 5. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) a. Integrated astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory on how the universe worked.

  23. b. Principle of universal gravitation: -- Detailed in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) -- More popularly known as Principia -- Every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship -- Since these natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God’s active participation in the natural world is not needed to explain the forces of nature -- Ideas became basis of deism during the Enlightenment

  24. 6. Anatomy and physiology a. Scientists began challenging Greco- Roman medical views (especially those of Galen) b. Vesalius:The Structure of the Human body (1543) -- Renewed and modernized the study of human anatomy

  25. c. William Harvey (1578-1657) -- On the Circulation of Blood (1628): explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body

  26. d. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) -- “Father of microscopy” -- First to see and write about micro- organisms in water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries

  27. 7. Royal scientific societies • Governments/monarchs encouraged scientific inquiry as a means to further the prestige of the state and remain at the cutting edge of technology • Scientists now could communicate with each other internationally • The Royal Society in England was perhaps the most successful and prestigious; founded in 1660 • Other royal societies were created in Naples, France, Prussia (by Frederick I) and Russia (by Peter the Great).

  28. 8. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution a. Led to the Enlightenment b. Improvements in exploration (e.g. John Harrison’s chronometer gave mariners the ability to easily determine longitude) Harrison's "Sea Watch" No.1 (H4), with winding crank

  29. c. Experimentation helped accelerate the Agricultural Revolution d. Improvements in medical knowledge later led to medical advances (18th and 19th centuries) e. Contributed to the end of witch hunts f. Science and religion were not in acute conflict until the 18th and 19th century

  30. The Enlightenment (reached maturation by 1750) • Secular world view emerged for the first time • Belief that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life • Belief in man’s intellect apart from God • Faith in reason, not revelation

  31. 4. Deism: religious arm of the Enlightenment a. Existence of God was a rational explanation of the universe and its form b. Universe ran much like a clock c. Universe governed by “natural law,” not by a personal god d. Deism grew out of Newton’s theories regarding natural law 5. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677): Philosopher who created a world view in which he equated God and nature

  32. B. Belief that the scientific method could explain the laws of society -- Progress in society was possible through following natural laws

  33. C. John Locke (1632-1704): greatest of the Enlightenment thinkers 1. Two Treatises on Civil Government, (1690) a. Philosophical defense for the “Glorious Revolution” in England b. State of nature: humans were basically good but lack protection -- Contrasts Hobbes’ view

  34. c. Governments provide rule of law but only through consent of the governed d. Purpose of government is to protect the natural rights of the people:life, liberty and property -- Social contract: people agree to obey the government in return for protection of natural rights e. Right to rebellion: people have a right to abolish a government that doesn’t protect natural rights

  35. 2. Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) a. One of the great works of the Enlightenment, along with Principia b. Stressed importance of environment on human development c. tabula rasa: the human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively

  36. d. Saw all human knowledge as the result of sensory experiences without any preconceived notions -- Contrasted Descartes’ view that people are born with certain basic ideas e. For progress to occur in society, education was critical in determining human development. f. Undermined the Christian view that humankind was essentially sinful

  37. D. Ideal of toleration was popularized by scholars who made Enlightenment ideas accessible to the public 1. Bernard de Fontenelle (1757-1757) a. Made highly complicated scientific ideas accessible to a broad audience b. Stressed the idea of progress c. Skeptical of absolute truth and questioned claims of organized religion

  38. 2. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706): Critical and Historical Dictionary, 1697 a. Advocated complete toleration of ideas • A person should be free to worship any religion, or none at all • Argued that religion and morality were not necessarily linked b. He was a skeptic: believed nothing could be known beyond all doubt • Similar to Montaigne’s earlier views c. His major criticism was of Christianity’s attempt to impose orthodoxy.

  39. E. The Philosophes • Sought fundamental reform in society a. Popularizers of the Enlightenment b. Believed in progress in society through discovering the natural lawsgoverning nature and human existence c. Radically optimistic about how people should live and govern themselves

  40. 2. Voltaire (1694-1778) • Perhaps most influential of all the Enlightenment philosophers • Deist who challenged traditional Catholic theology • Inspired movement for change • Hated bigotry and injustice and sought religious toleration • Ecrasez l’infame (“Crush the infamous thing”)

  41. d. Believed in Enlightened despotism believing people were incapable of ruling themselves -- Ideas similar to Hobbes -- Influenced Frederick the Great, Catherine the great, Joseph II and Napoleon -- Believed in equality before the law but not in equality of the classes

  42. 3. Baron de Montesqueiu (1689-1755) a. Nobleman who hated absolutism of Louis XIV b. Spirit of the Laws (1748): called forseparation of powers in gov’t into three branches -- Principles of checks and balances c. Significant impact on the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution in the 1780s

  43. 4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) a.  Social Contract (1762) -- Believed too much emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice -- The general will, a consensus of the majority, should control the nation

  44. b. Considered part of the Enlightenment but was also a founder of the Romantic movement c. State of nature: man was a “noble savage” but was corrupted by the materialism of civilization d. Emile(1762) -- Believed in progressive education; learning by doing; and self-expression

  45. 5. Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopedia a. Perhaps greatest and most representative work of the philosophes b. Vast compendium of political and social critiques c. Popularized views of the philosophes d. Emphasized science and reason; criticized religion, intolerance, injustice, and tyranny e. Encyclopedia was banned in France and placed on the Index of Forbidden Books by the pope

  46. 6. Marquis de Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764) a. Sought to humanize criminal law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law b. Opposed death penalty c. Opposed torture to extract confessions d. His ideas influenced Enlightened Despots: -- Frederick the Great banned torture -- Catherine the Great restricted it -- Joseph II banned torture and the death penalty

  47. F.  Economic Theory 1.  Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) a. Leader of the physiocrats in France who opposed mercantilism b. Sought to reform the existing agrarian system by instituting laissez faire in agriculture c. Believed gov’t and nobility had too much control over land, thus stifling production

  48. 2.   Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776) a. Considered the “bible” of capitalism b. Refined and expanded ideas of the physiocrats c. Believed the economy is governed by natural laws of supply and demand

  49. G. Women in the Enlightenment 1. Women played a major role in the salon movement a. Brightest minds of the era assembled to discuss major issues b. Some women took part in the discussions -- Madame de Geoffrin -- Madame de Staël -- Louise de Warens

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