1. Argumentation

2. What is Argument? Argument is a form of thinking in which certain statements ( reasons) are offered in support of another statement (a conclusion). An argument is a statement or statements offering support for a claim. “ Argumentation is the art of influencing others, through the medium of reasoned discourse, to believe or act as we wish them to believe or act.”

3. Recognizing Arguments A writer that offers reasons to support a conclusion is said to be presenting an argument. Moreover, all arguments comprise the following; • Reasons- Statements that support another statement, justify it or make it more probable. • Conclusions- A statement that asserts, explains or makes predictions that are offered as evidence for the reasons predicted.

4. Cue words used in the presentation of Arguments Cue words are important in the recognition of arguments since they signal that a reason is being offered in support of a conclusion or that a conclusion is being announced on the basis of certain reasons.

5. The most commonly used cue words for reasons and conclusions Cue Words Signaling Reasons • For • Since • Because • As shown by • As indicated by • Given that • Assuming that • In view of • First, second • In the first place • May be inferred from • May be deduced from • May be derived from • For the Reason that Cue Words Signaling Conclusions • Therefore • Thus • Hence • It follows that • Thereby showing • Implies that • Demonstrates that • Suggests very strongly that • Leads me to believe that • Consequently • Allows us to infer that • As a result • Points to • You see that • Allows us to deduce that

6. Evaluating Arguments When evaluating an argument, the reader must determine the effectiveness of the argument presented by the writer. Moreover, in determining the effectiveness of the argument the reader should ask the following questions: • How true are the reasons being offered to support the conclusions? • To what extent do the reasons support the conclusion or to what extent does the conclusion follow from the reasons being offered? When attempting to evaluate the truth of reasons being used to support a conclusion, it is best to ask the following questions: • Does the reason make sense? • Do I know the reason to be true based on my experience? • Is the reason based on a source that can be trusted?

7. Identifying Inductive and Deductive Arguments • All men are mortal John is a man John is a mortal Man • Young people really are dangerous drivers. Both of the accidents I’ve been involved in were with people under twenty –one .And my friends say the same thing. • Few students visit the library at the commencement of the semester. Few students borrowed books from the library during the semester Students attending the University of Guyana do not like to read. • If I prepare thoroughly for the final exam, then I will do well. I prepared thoroughly for the final exams I should do well on the exams.

8. Distinguishing between Fact and Opinion • “Statements of fact relate information that is widely accepted and objectively verifiable; facts are used as evidence to support the claim made by the thesis. • “An opinion is a personal interpretation of data or a belief or feeling that however strongly presented should not be mistaken by the reader for objective evidence.”

9. Fallacies in Arguments Fallacies are arguments gone awry. A fallacy occurs when a conclusion does not follow from the premises offered in its support.

10. Common Fallacies in Argument • Appeal to Pity: Appealing to the reader’s compassion rather than offering substantive reasons for a claim. • Appeal to Popular Sentiments: Appealing to generally favoured ideas or values • Begging the Question: Offering support of the claim that is really the claim itself restated. • False Dilemma: Assuming that only certain options exist when more options are available • False Analogy: Offering similarities between examples as proof of a claim. • Hasty Generalisation: Generalizing from inadequate sampling • Post Hoc: Treating as a causal relationship what might only be part of the cause or merely a coincidence.

11. Common Fallacies in Counter Arguments • Lack of Contrary Evidence: Offering the lack of proof of an opposing viewpoint as proof of one’s claim • Oversimplification: Omitting crucial points or qualifications to make an argument appear insubstantial or even silly • Personal Attack: Disparaging an arguer rather than his or her viewpoints. • Shifting Ground: Shifting, often subtly, from arguing the point in question to arguing another point. • Straw Man: Exaggerating premises and conclusions to make another’s argument seem ridiculous. • Trivial Objections: Assuming a quibble with minor points or poorly choose examples in itself disproves a contention.

12. Identifying Fallacies • Making decent, affordable health care available to all Guyanese is the Panthers’ highest priority. • I can’t lose weight because I am too fat to exercise. • Given the tight job market in your field, either take this low-salaried, entry level position of find yourself with no job at all. • To give the student society any real power would be a terrible mistake, because to do so would be like letting the inmates run the asylum. • See the man across the aisle? He has on a tweed jacket and jeans. My history professor and my English professor always dress that way. The man across the aisle must be a professor. • After I broke that mirror, I had a year of bad luck. • How can you speak so smugly in favour of gun control? I know for a fact that you didn’t report some of your income last year. You should clean up your own affairs before you involve yourself in other people’s.