GLOBAL NUCLEAR SAFETY AND SECURITY REGIME

1. GLOBAL NUCLEAR SAFETY AND SECURITY REGIME TASAM Conference on World Outlook in Nuclear Technology: Generation III and III+ NPPs 27 – 28 March 2008, Istanbul Aybars Gürpınar, Independent Consultant (Ret. Dir-NSNI, IAEA)

2. Definitions (informal) • Nuclear Safety: Prevent accidents in nuclear installations and mitigate consequences should they occur (CNS) • Nuclear Security: Prevent theft of nuclear and other radioactive material; prevent acts of sabotage to nuclear installations (and transport) and mitigate consequences should they occur (CPPNM + others) • Nuclear Safeguards: State accountancy and control of nuclear material and its independent verification to ensure that it is not used for other than peaceful purposes (NPT + AP)

3. Foreword (summary result of a recent brainstorming session) • Nuclear energy is needed in the energy mix of industrialized countries to ensure the security of energy supply • Nuclear energy will be a sustainable alternative only if nuclear safety and nuclear security are assured. • Therefore for the security of energy supply to be assured, nuclear safety and security is needed.

4. Contents • 1970s – the golden age of nuclear energy • TMI and aftermath • 1980s and Chernobyl – the role of the IAEA in the post Chernobyl world – the “rapprochement” • RBMKs and WWERs • 1990s - Consensus Building and the CNS • Safety standards, safety services, safety culture

5. Contents • 2000 – consolidation of the global nuclear safety regime – CNS, standards/services top down approach • 9/11 – security concerns – another round of consensus building (safety/security) • Lesser known dates 12/24 and 7/16 • The Nobel Peace Prize • General optimism for nuclear renaissance • Remaining issues

6. 1970s – the golden age of nuclear energy • Nuclear power plants built and planned all over the world – also because of the OPEC crisis • Nuclear industry brings a new dimension to quality assurance and safety • IAEA starts work on the NUSS (NUclear Safety Standards) program – Siting, Design, Operation, Governmental Organization and Quality Assurance

7. TMI (1979) and aftermath • First major (severe) accident in a commercial NPP. • Beginning of 1980s witnesses the end of the OPEC crisis (oil prices stabilize) • Sharp downturn (especially in the USA) for new NPP orders • Two outcomes of the TMI event – look at severe accidents seriously (design fixes and/or accident management) and a proof that DiD actually works, although a severe accident occurred no offsite consequences due to the containment

8. 1980s and Chernobyl – the role of the IAEA in the post Chernobyl world – polarization and “rapprochement” • (mid-1980s) Signs of socio-political changes in Eastern Europe and the USSR (Perestroika and Glasnost) • April 1986: Chernobyl accident – the worst nuclear accident with major offsite consequences • August 1986 – Conference in Vienna (IAEA) on Chernobyl

9. Chernobyl Aftermath

10. 1980s and Chernobyl – the role of the IAEA in the post Chernobyl world – polarization and “rapprochement” • (Vienna Conference, August 1986) – • USSR delegation view: human error → will be fixed, responsibles are punished → will not be allowed to happen again. • Western view: design error (although design of RBMKs was not well known in the West) → therefore cannot happen in the West • Cold war approach to the problem – polarized and political. However, some major technical points surface during discussion.

11. RBMKs and WWERs • Rapid evolution of events until 1990 – public associates Soviet designed NPPs (RBMKs and WWERs thought to be similar by the public) push Eastern European countries for safety review of WWERs • German unification forces WWER in East Germany to shut down • In USSR itself, the first design review (1989) by the IAEA to Gorky NPP (a district heating plant – completed but never operated). Sakharov was interned in Gorky at the time and IAEA team was the first foreign group to visit to the “closed” city.

12. 1990s - Consensus Building and the CNS • General agreement on the “why”s of Chernobyl – Design/analysis shortcomings led to the result that human errors caused a catastrophic failure – i.e. design was not “forgiving” of human errors. DiD did not consider beyond design basis events. • The term “safety culture” used for the first time (by INSAG chairman, Edmondson) – “having the safety requirements and complying with them voluntarily”

13. Safety standards, safety services, safety culture • Two major projects on safety of WWERs and RBMKs started early 1990s at the IAEA • Consensus building consolidated – IAEA SS revised (ad hoc) taking into account the lessons learned (from TMI and Chernobyl) • Safety Fundamentals (for nuclear installation safety) issued • First steps for the Convention on Nuclear safety (CNS) using the IAEA Safety Fundamentals as basis

14. Safety standards, safety services, safety culture • Boom in IAEA Safety Review Services • Operational safety review teams (OSARTs) • Design Reviews (mainly for operating WWERs) • Site/seismic reviews • Plans for regulatory reviews (IRRTs) • First review meeting of the CNS in Vienna (1999)

15. 2000 – consolidation of the global nuclear safety regime – CNS, standards/services top down approach • Beginning to mid-2000s – top down approach to safety standards – logical structure (thematic and facility specific standards), integrating nuclear installation safety with radiation safety, waste safety and transport safety. • IAEA SS become the foremost reference to the regulations of major countries (UK, France, China, WENRA, Japan, Korea, Russia, ..) • IAEA Revision of Fundamental Safety Principles published (2006)

16. Safety Fundamentals Safety Requirements Safety Guides SAFETY STANDARDS HIERARCHY

17. Safety Fundamentals Thematic standards Facilities specific standards Legal and governmental infrastructure Nuclear power plants: design Nuclear power plants: operation Emergency preparedness and response Management systems Research reactors Fuel cycle facilities Assessment and verification Site evaluation Radiation related facilities and activities Radiation protection Waste treatment and disposal facilities Radioactive waste management Decommissioning Remediation of contaminated areas Transport of radioactive material General safety (cross-cutting themes) Safety of nuclear facilities Radiation protection and safety of radiation sources Safe management of radioactive waste Safe transport of radioactive material STRUCTURE OF THE STANDARDS

18. 2000 – consolidation of the global nuclear safety regime – CNS, standards/services top down approach • IAEA Safety Services are cited as assets in country reports and CNS review meetings – their absence considered a shortcoming and criticized. • IRRT turns to IRRS (Integrated Regulatory Review Services) covering all NS (not only installations) – major countries are in queue: UK, France, Japan, Canada, Spain, Germany, USA, Russia, China

19. Pentagon Aftermath

20. Known Unknowns, etc Known knowns, known unknowns, unknown knowns, unknown unknowns (Rumsfeld) “He who knows and knows he knows is wise, follow him He who knows and knows not he knows is asleep, wake him He who knows not and knows he knows not is ignorant, teach him He who knows not and knows not he knows not is a fool, beware of him” “Maturity is the ability to endure uncertainty”

21. Four Concerns of Nuclear Terrorism • Theft of a nuclear weapon • Theft of nuclear material to make an improvised nuclear explosive device - IND • Theft of other radioactive material for a radioactive dispersal device - RDD • Sabotageof a facility or transport

22. Inventories – facilities and materials • Pu >1.670 tons civil, >155 tons military • HEU> 175 tons civil, >1720 tons military • >440 operating nuclear power plants in 31 States • >480 research reactors (>70 with HEU) • >100 fuel cycle facilities • > 100.000 Cat I and II radioactive sources • > 1.000.000 Cat III radioactive sources

23. 9/11 – security concerns – another round of consensus building (safety/security) • Major impact on nuclear security concerns. For NPPs, checks for major sabotage events (including malevolent crash of commercial airliners) – IAEA starts the only international nuclear security program. • The IAEA program is very comprehensive – here we will only touch on the “sabotage protection” related aspects • Nuclear Sabotage: Malevolent acts directed to nuclear installations (and transport) having the objective of causing uncontrolled dispersion of radioactive material

24. 9/11 – security concerns – another round of consensus building (safety/security) • In 2005 CPPNM is amended to include nuclear facilities more explicitly • The suicidal nature of attacks and the sophistication in planning are new elements in the “threat” to nuclear installations • In 2007 (after 5 years of consensus building between MS as well as between safety/security specialists) publishes the security series Technical Guidance on the Engineering Safety Aspects for the Protection of NPPs against Sabotage

26. Protection of Nuclear Facilities Against Sabotage • Threat Assessment Consequences Beyond DBT DBT Extreme Load Evaluation Sabotage Protection Design & Evaluation 6 Vital Areas Identification 8 State’s Responsibility • Detection • Delay • Response/ • Recovery • System Design • Facility Layout • Safety Measures • PPS Response SSC capacity evaluation SA Crisis management State’s Security 10 6d Emergency Response 7 Acceptable Risk

27. Norwegian Nobel Committee Citation “The… Committee has decided that the Nobel Peace Prize for 2005 is to be shared… between the IAEA and its Director General… for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way.” “ At a time …when there is a danger that nuclear arms will spread both to states and to terrorists groups, and when nuclear power again appears to be playing an increasingly significant role, IAEA’s work is of incalculable importance.”

28. The Indian Ocean Tsunami 12/24/2004

29. 07/16/2007 Offshore Japan EQ Shuts down the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP (the world’s biggest) • The world’s largest nuclear power plant, with 5 BWR-5 units and 2 ABWR units. Total generating capacity reaches 8,212 MWe.

30. An example of the damage <Main exhaust duct> (Seismic Class:C) - Some gaps occurred in the main exhaust duct.

31. General optimism for nuclear renaissance • 22 years after Chernobyl, good (and improving) track record on safety • Concerns for global warming and tendency for technologies that do not contribute to green house gas emissions • Increasing and unstable prices in the gas market – also difficult to store for long periods • Sharp increase for electricity demand in emerging economies

32. Remaining issues • Overconfidence/complacency – countries considered to have “good safety culture” keep having incidents (USA, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden) • Gap in knowledge base – retiring generation not replaced by younger cadres • Nuclear Power Plants are robust, but are they resilient??? – The case of K - K NPP • Public information on nuclear safety, environmental impact communicated poorly

33. Nuclear energy and the environment Public Opinion Understanding • EU Publicopinion survey