The Scientific Revolution

1. NOT: new, rapid, collective DID: blend old and new theories, slowly with no more than a few hundred people who relied on artisans and craftsmen and established new social institutions to promote scientific discoveries The Scientific Revolution The Quest to Explain How and Why Planets Move with REASON + RATIONAL SCIENCE v. FAITH DESIGNED TO BETTER MANKING All affected by: The Protestant Reformation The Discovery of the New World

2. Scientific Revolution Knowledge of the physical world based on experimental observation and sophisticated mathematics A shift from medieval thought that explained the physical world through religious superstitions and the political structure of divine kings to modern thought based on secular and scientific explanation and the political possibility that people could govern themselves. This would affect the economic and social structure as well as the world moved toward capitalism and away from mercantilism CAUSES: Medieval Universities with professors and a large student body created a society focused on learning Renaissance humanism unveiled old Greek and Roman mathematics that could be studied and improved. Mathematicians vowed to solve controversies with proof. Patrons that supported the arts now turned to science Nation states funded exploration and trade under mercantilist goals. This presented navigational issues that were studies at Gresham College and the results were new instruments Better instruments gave scientists better ways to collect knowledge. This led to empirical research that fostered inductive and deductive reasoning

3. ARISTOTELIAN WORLD VIEW • Geocentric - earth was the center • Surrounded by 10 crystalline spheres (sun, moon, 5 planets, and stars) • 5 elements - heavy went down, light went up = his explanation of gravity • Beyond the spheres was God & angels who moved spheres • Natural state of an object was at rest, if object moved the speed was constant • Universe was finite • Based on Ptolemy - earth moved in perfect circle in epicycles (80) • Epicycles = planets moved around small circle and center of circle moved around larger circle Problem: Planets appeared to move in a noncircular pattern and backwards - epicycles - 2nd rev. tangent to the primary orbit

4. Copernicus’ Challenge • Heliocentric - sun was the center of the universe • Earth moved around a fixed sun in a circle and turned on its axis once daily • Retained epicycles but lesser • Explained motion of planets as optical illusion viewed from a moving earth • Order of planets = distance from sun & planets were far apart • Took one year for earth to move around sun - Universe was infinite • Put the stars at rest, nightly motion result of earth’s rotation - no crystalline spheres • 1572 Exploding star • 1577 New Comet Were Spheres Impenetrable? PROBLEMS: Why did objects fall on earth? Appeared to deny senses On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres Published the year he died - criticized by Protestants

5. Tycho Brahe - One Wacky Guy • Looked at all the data to reach the right conclusion • Patron of Danish King who built his conservatory in Hven • Watched stars and planets for 20 years • Witnessed eclipse of sun • Discovered supernova - Cassiopeia • Saw a comet pass through epicycle which shattered Aristotle’s concept Theory Mercury and Venus revolved around the sun, sun and other planets revolved around earth Metallic nose, pet moose and a strange death Stella Nova

6. Johannes Kepler Brahe’s assistant - used math to prove his concepts Three Laws of Planetary Motion • Planets movement are elliptical • Planets do not move at a uniform speed, those closer to sun move faster • Relationship between size of orbit and length of time planet takes to orbit the sun Whereas Copernicus speculated Kepler proved with Math - a sun-centered universe Problem: • No answer for gravity New Astronomy

7. Galileo GalileiDid not speculate conducted controlled experiments With telescope, • saw mountains on moon, proving the moon was not perfect • Spots on sun • 4 moons around Jupiter (could not be embedded in spheres) • Named Saturn’s moons for Medicis Conducted experiments acceleration • Light objects fall at same speed as heavy object - undermined Aristotle - • Balls falling straight down reach ground at same time as balls pushed vertically • Balls falling down in incline travel at the same speed regardless of rate of incline (Laws of Inertia & Acceleration) • Natural state of an object is in motion unless acted upon by an outside force so angels were not moving spheres or planets would go faster Got into trouble with the Church Starry Messenger Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World

8. Newton“If I have seen further than others, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants” Finally the answer how planets move and why they stay in place GRAVITY • Every object in the universe is affected by every other object by gravity • For every action there is an opposite and equal reaction Principia Mathematica locked himself in his room for 18 months and discovered calculus

9. New Language was mechanics and mathematics Francis Bacon • Attacked scholastic beliefs that all truth had already been discovered and only required explanation • Championed innovation and change • Science had a practical purpose - human improvement • Examine evidence of senses - empirical knowledge • Apply inductive reasoning to empirical observation = scientific method • Pursuit of knowledge would increase power of governments and monarchies Novum Organum Looked to make knowledge useful He and Newton agreed

10. Rene Descartes • Invented analytical geometry - Cartesian plane • Favored Deductive rather than inductive reasoning • Doubt everything, accept only what can be proven • “I think therefore I am” • Deduced existence of God as the guarantor of correct and clear ideas • Divided world into two realms: Thinking and Space (mind & body) • Reason should only be applied to material realm Discourse on Methods

11. Thomas HobbesDefender of Absolutism Humans: • Are egotistical and only interested in increasing pleasure and decreasing pain • believe they have a natural right to everything. This equality leads to competition and a state of war causing anxiety and fear of death and destruction • Escape this fate by entering into a contract to establish a commonwealth with an absolute ruling body • Set aside personal rights for golden rule and absolute authority enforces this with absolute and unlimited power Authority can be a King or Legislative Body Leviathan

12. John Locke First Treatise of Government • Rejected absolute rule modeled after father leading a family. (Who said this?) Second Treatise of Government Humans • are capable of reason and goodwill that can dwell in peace • Experience competition and conflict that requires political authority to sort out the problem • Enter into a contract with government to secure their rights to life, liberty, and property Government • has limited authority because authority is derived from the people. If government fails to protect these rights, people have right to replace the government Letter Concerning Toleration • Each person must work out his own salvation and has right to choose own religion. Government should not impose religious uniformity, but accept many. Essay Concerning Human Understanding • At birth, mind is a blank slate, (tabula rosa) life’s experiences write on that slate therefore, human condition can be improved by changing the environment

13. New Institutions for New Knowledge Universities • Gave scientists basis of knowledge, provided physical and financial support but were slow to accept change Institutes of Sharing - Royal Academies • Allowed information to be gathered, shared, and debated 1. Royal Academy of London 2. Academy of Experience in Florence 3. French Academy of Science 4. Berlin Academy of Science Local Societies and Academies • Met regularly to hear papers and conduct experiments • Credible because observed by socially respectable • Published information and organized libraries • Separated science from religious and political conflicts

14. Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution Women were excluded because: • European institutions excluded women • Monasteries and churches were institutions associated with male clerics • Women were not admitted to universities • Women did exert influence over princely courts but did not determine patronage • Women who did participate in the Scientific Revolution did so through husbands or male family members and were either of the noble class or artisan class • All because guys are male chauvinists p…

15. Women of Noble Heritage Margaret Cavendish • Dutchess of Newcastle gave her entrance into circle of scientists • Understood new science and quarreled with Descartes and Hobbes • Only woman to be invited to a meeting of London Royal Academy • Wrote Description of a NewWorld, called Blazing Worlds Description of a New World Blazing Worlds

16. Women from Artisan Class Maria Cunitz • Published Urania Propitia - solutions to Kepler’s problems but book attributed to husband Elisabeth Hevelius • Managed observatory in Danzig with husband using Sextant Maria Winkelmann • Discovered comet and published official calendar but twice denied admission to Berlin Academy of Science Emilie du Chatelet • Mistress of Voltaire • Aided him with popularization of Newton’s works • Knew more math than Voltaire

17. Bernard de Fontenelle In his book, Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds, he made difficult scientific concepts easy to understand. This is achieved through a conversation with an aristocratic woman and her friend discussing astronomy…”There came on the scene one Copernicus who made short work of all those various circles, all those solid skies, which ancients had pictured…he took the earth and spun it very far away from the center of the universe, where it had been installed…” Skeptical about absolute truth an critical of claims of organized religion. Progressive and anti-religious thinker

18. Science Religion • Theories and discoveries did not agree with Bible • Who would decide the conflict between church and new science, church or new philosophers? • New science offered materialistic universe, not a spiritual one, AND, new philosophers thought their efforts reconciled faith and science Deism

19. The Case of Galileo Background info: • Catholics were caught between a rock and a hard place; could not turn the interpretation of the Bible over to a layman nor could they deviate from literal translation • Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo claimed that Bible should be interpreted to accommodate science and this smacked of Protestant criticism • 1616, the Catholic church censored On the Revolution of Heavenly Bodies • Pope Urban VIII allowed Galileo to discuss the Copernican system in his book and that was the problem • Book defended physical truth and made any one who supported the old world view look dim-witted • Galileo was condemned for disregarding the 1616 ban and placed under house arrest for 9 years.

20. Blaise Pascal: Reason & Faith • Sought to disprove dogmatism (Jesuits) & skepticism (atheists or deists) • Sided with Jansenists • Religion was not the domain of reason or science 1. A loving God exists but humans are corrupt and not worthy of Him 2. Reason should drive a person to God and his divine grace. • Better to believe God exists and throw yourself on His mercy, than to not do this and go to “hell

21. Andreas Vesalius The Study of Human Anatomy had for centuries depended on Galen. His account of medical anatomy was based on monkeys as human dissection was not permitted in his time, but it was unsurpassed until the printed description and illustrations of human dissections by Andreas Vesalius in 1543. Galen identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Venous blood was thought to originate in the liver and arterial blood in the heart; the blood flowed from those organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed. Galen's account of the activities of the heart, arteries and veins endured until William Harvey established that the blood circulates with the heart acting as a pump in 1628. The Structure of the Human Body

22. Harvey was fascinated by the way blood flowed through the human body. Most people of the day believed that food was converted into blood by the liver, then was consumed as fuel by the body. Harvey knew this was untrue through his firsthand observations of human and animal dissections. In 1628 Harvey published An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heartand of the Blood in Animals which explained how blood was pumped from the heart throughout the body, then returned to the heart and re-circulated. These views were very controversial and lost Harvey many patients, but it became the basis for all modern research on the heart and blood vessels. A second ground-breaking book published by Harvey in 1651, Essays on the Generation of Animals, is considered the basis for modern embryology. William Harvey An Anatomical Study of the Motion of the Heartand of the Blood in Animals

23. Father of Modern Chemistry • Boyle’s Law - the volume of gas under compression is inversely proportional to the to the amount of pressure. • The Spring and Weight of the Air • First to make the distinction between a chemical element and a compound and to clearly define the nature of a chemical reaction Robert Boyle The Sceptical Chymist

24. Philosophy Responds to Changing Science Characteristics of the Enlightenment Broad intellectual and cultural movement with different and sometimes conflicting ideas. Disillusioned with scholastics • Science can be used to examine and understand all aspects of life [reason] • Use the scientific method to also discover human society as well as nature • With the right method to discover laws of human existence, humans can create a better society [progress] We can move beyond antiquity Science and mathematics was the new language. Laws were explained in mechanical ways as was creation. Catholic church came under more attack and Deism was born

25. Newton and Locke   Empirical support experiences (tabula rosa) Philosophes writers and critics who wanted reform. Apply laws of nature and common sense to major institutions (government, economy, religion) and social life (agriculture, inventions) Most were found in coffee houses, salons, nobles courts, or with powerful monarchs Common desire to reform society and government for the sake of human liberty Most got their beliefs across through the print culture. Supported the growth of transportation and trade Human society could and needed to be improved. Favored English politics, government, economy While criticizing the same institutions in France Print Culture Use of books, journals, newspapers, magazines and pamphlets flourished. Public and private libraries grew, became more widely read in middle classes Encyclopedia Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Albert 100 authors on religions government, philosophy, written in code Practical help with manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, agriculture

26. Denis Diderot First twenty-eight volumes were published between 1751 and 1722 with five additional volumes in 1776 - 1777. He developed a great fear that knowledge would continue to be destroyed by the Christians, who had a one-thousand year’s history of destroying libraries, burning books, ripping paintings, smashing marbles, and torturing anyone who voiced an unorthodox thought. To prevent it from happening many articles were written in code. He wrote almost a thousand of its articles, over a 20 year period. The rest were submitted by the scholars of the world including our own Ben Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Rush. Through Madam Geofrin, Catherine the Great of Russia financed several volumes of the encyclopedia Encyclopedia

27. Marie Therese Geoffrin Married a wealthy husband so she had the money to organize salons to spread enlightenment ideas and connect philosophes to patrons

28. Francois-Marie Arouet Candide - satire on religion and war while offering optimism about human nature Religion - Deist - believes in God who created the universe and set it in motion in accordance with natural laws - a Giant Watchmaker - who does not interfere with people’s daily lives and did not respond to prayer. Believe in life after death and that God would reward or punish people according to their conduct. “Crush the Infamous thing” Sent to prison for offending French noble, lived in England and admired their tolerance of religion and politics - Letters on the English. Defended Jean Calas, a Huguenot merchant who was executed of murdering his son to prevent his conversion to Catholicism. Verdict was reversed. - Treatise on Tolerance “I disagree with what you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.” Politically - favored Enlightened Despots - absolute ruler who promoted reform. Wrote to Fred and Cat Enlightenment and Religion Voltaire Voltaire

29. Baruch Spinoza • Hoped human reason would revise • traditional thought • Ethics – closely identified God and • nature • criticized because it left little room for • divine revelation and accountability of • human beings after death • Theologico-Political Treatise described • origins of religion in natural terms - • bible provided divine legislation but • not theological knowledge, (Biblical • stories) .Humans should use their own • reason for this • Viewed as a Jew who had separated himself from traditional Jewish religion to enter mainstream society – made it possible for some to advocate toleration of Jews Theologico-Political

30. Moses Mendelsohn Jewish Socrates Entry of Jews into modern European life - Jerusalem On Ecclesiastical Power of Judasim religious toleration & maintaining distinct Jewish communities Religious tolerance does not threaten governments so governments should be neutral and allow Jews civil jobs and rights while living in separate Jewish communities Tolerance could be achieved and also keeping traditional religious practices. Tolerance of Jews and by Jews Jerusalem On Ecclesiastical Power of Judasim

31. Brought law and justice into line with the rational laws of nature. Barbarous punishments failed to deter crime, the certainty of punishment was far more effective. Justice should be swift and that punishment should focus on the rehabilitation of the criminal. The crime should fit the punishment. This philosophy was adopted by the three enlightened despots Enlightenment and Society Cesare Beccaria Essay on Crimes and Punishments

32. Adam Smith Economics Francois Quesnay The Wealth of Nations A nation’s wealth was based on production of farmers, artisans, and factory workers. Three laws: Self-interest - people should be free to pursue their own economic self-interest and this would promote prosperity Competition would force the individual to produce the best good at the lowest price Supply and demand would naturally regulate prices. Physiocrat and biologist who was surgeon to Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour. Rejected mercantilism that measured wealth by sold and silver, he insisted the land was the only source of wealth. Instead of regulating trade, trade should be free - no tariffs, just one tax, an income tax based on land

33. Government Did not believe there was one single ideal political system, different systems were correct for different people and he experimented with several based on the British political system. The Spirit of the Laws Separation of powers between the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of government. This division with checks and balances would place limits on the power of the executive and protect the rights of the individual. He did not believe all people were equal and felt the aristocracy should lead. But he was an advocate for women’s rights The Persian Letters critical view of European civilization and manners. The letters that three Persians (people from what is now Iran) traveling in Europe. The message is that society lasts only on the basis of virtue and justice, which is rooted in the need of human cooperation and acceptance. Montesquieu The Spirit of the Laws

34. Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Noble Savage - Man was born free but everywhere he is in chains. People living in a state of nature had once been virtuous, free, equal and happy. They were corrupted by civilization therefore they need a natural education, free of corruption and the artificiality of society. Ideas of education - Emile - learn from direct experience and not books Social Contract Even though government restricted freedom, it is necessary. Proposed a social contract where members of society agree to be ruled by their general will. All members form the general will that is executed by a small group. Believed general will of the people was always right and an act of obedience was an act of freedom. Helped promote democratic ideology And Separate spheres Social Contract

35. Born into an English middle-class family, her father beat her mother and lost his fortune. Determined to be independent in a society that expected her to become an obedient wife, she earned a living as a governess and teacher. She was angered by Edmund Burke’s defense of the French monarchy, she wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man then developed her masterpiece, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman…demanding that the Rights of women be respected and calling for justice of one-half of the human race. She advocated rigorous coeducation to make women better wives and mothers, good citizens and also economically independent persons. Men would benefit from women’s rights because “the two sexes mutually corrupt and improve each other.” Mary Wollstonecraft

36. Enlightened Despots Goal: Modernize government to increase his authority over Hapsburg lands, the church and nobles. 1. To control Hungary, refused the crown of St. Stephen, recognized local Hungarian governments and sent in his own officials, demanded all speak German. Had to repeal all these when Magyars resisted 2. Joseph and the Church Granted religious tolerance to Christians and removed some restrictions on the Jews. Abolished hundreds of monasteries and convents and confiscated much of the church’s land because he said their use of the land was unproductive. Took church revenues in state treasury and made clergy employees of the state. All communication from Rome had to go through him. Bishops had to swear obedience to him. Abolished internal tariffs and encourage road building, toured farms and manufacturing districts, created national courts with power over nobles. Freed the serfs and granted them right to marry, abolished the robot and replaced it with a tax with only a part of it going to the landowners, state kept the rest. All landowners had to pay a tax. Joseph II Austria 1780 - 1790 Divided Poland b/w PAR

37. Friend of Voltaire his reform was designed to increase the power of the monarchy Created bureaus of commerce and industry, excise and tools, mines and forestry. With French experts he reorganized tax system for the state got more money from direct taxes on individuals. Codified 9 arranged in a systematic order) all law and abolished the use of torture. Encouraged expanding trade into newly acquired Silesia, tariffs were imposed to protect new Prussian industries, internal tariffs were reduced, the Bank of Berlin extended credit for economic development and new canals were built. Introduced new crops specifically the potato and turnip. Allowed Catholics to live in Lutheran areas and respected Catholic rights in Silesia Divided Poland between PAR Frederick the Great 1740 - 1786

38. Catherine the Great Corresponded with Voltaire and bought part of Diderot’s encyclopedia Created a Legislative Commission with 500 members of all classes except serfs to propose reforms in the legal system. Accomplished little and was dismissed Reduced internal barriers to trade, increased exports of flax, furs, grain and naval stores 1773 - 1775 Pugachev revolt forced Catherine to reorganize local government into 50 provinces and put nobles in control of the new provinces. Owed her support to nobles so in 1785 she issued the Charter of Nobility that recognized the rights and privileges of the nobles, including exempting them from taxes and military service and gave them total control of their estates and serfs… Thanks a lot Pugachev. War with Ottomans got Russia land on the Black and Aegean Seas - warm water ports. Partitioned Poland with Prussia and Austria And then there’s that horse story…..