Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study

1. Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study

2. 1. War on the Western Front • the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front • the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers • overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele • changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time

3. 1. 1 the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front The Germans were halted at the Marne and pushed back to the Aisne River where on 15th Sept, trenches were dug, the war of movement ended and the stalemate and a war of attrition commenced.

4. The Schlieffen Plan • German’s General Von Schlieffen planning for victory in the war assumed it would be a war against two fronts, France and Russia simultaneously. Developed 1891-1905. • Assumed France would mobilise faster than Russia. • Relatively small German force would hold the Russian’s in East Prussia – the rest would be dealt with when France had been conquered. • The right wing of German army would mobilise in the North and invade France through Neutral Belgium • Smaller left wing would hold French Army on the Rhine Border against expected attack through Alsace-Lorraine – The French’s Plan 17 had worked into German hands. • After quick advance through Belgium and a takeover of their railways, north German armies would encircle Paris the French capital then wheel around to capture the armies attacking the German border.

5. Alliance system meant German faced a war on two fronts. Solution: The Schlieffen Plan

6. The Schlieffen plan

7. The Schlieffen Plan’s failure • Russia mobilised quicker than expected. • Austria did not provide the support Germany needed • Some German forces needed to be redirected away from the invasion of France to the Eastern Front, further weakening the forces after Moltke’s alterations. • Belgium’s resistance to grant permission to Germany – Liege, a vital railway juncture, held out for 12 days, slowing German momentum. • Belgium’s invasion outraged Britain, who came into the war to support their French Ally. The BEF was quickly sent to France and held up the Germans at the Battle of Mons. • Germany experienced major supply problems, separated up to 128km from base to frontline. • Gaps between the wheeling manoeuvres meant that British and French armies could move in between them – Paris was not encircled.

8. Delays in the German advance gave French time to regroup – 5th September, General Joffre, counter-attacked on the front of the River Marne, assisted by the BEF – after 5 days of fighting, the German advance was stopped. • German’s withdrew to River Aisne, then even further beyond, where they began to “dig in” for the winter. • Unable to dislodge the Germans from trenches, the Allied soldiers also dug in – the beginning of the trench system.

9. The Race to the Sea • Both sides attempted to get around each other’s trenches and gain control of the sea ports – the “race” to the English Channel. • Trench lines were extended across Northern France and Belgium – the same in the south.

10. Eventually there was a line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. In Brief1. The Schlieffen Plan was aimed at the rapid defeat of France.2. It failed.3. The “war of movement” ended.4. Trench systems were established5. A stalemate developed.

11. Other Reasons for the Stalemate • With both sides entrenched, the war of movement had ended on the Western Front, taken over by static warfare where neither could make breakthroughs. • The Schlieffen Plan had failed – based on a war of rapid movement and quick victory. • Once it broke down, each side established defensive positions and new technology favoured the defensive side. • Machine guns as new technology – advantage was given to entrenched defenders. It had the equivalent firepower per minute of 40-50 well-trained riflemen. Overheating and jamming were problems faced, but machine guns working in pairs, overlapping the perimeter of fire, made frontal attacks on trenches very costly.

12. Advances in technology made artillery far more effective. Advanced in High explosive and recoilless field guns allowed the delivery of a bombardment of shrapnel on advancing troops. • The rapid development of the heavily defended trench systems from English Channel to Switzerland meant neither side could outflank the enemy. • Trenches were meant to be temporary, until the forces were replenished (over 600,000 casualties for Germany, 850,000 for France in first 4 months) and able to adopt a strategy of movement and offence again. • Trenches were guarded by machine guns and barbed wire, supported by artillery. This required a rethinking of tactics. It took a long time for Generals to come to terms with this; meanwhile the soldiers became accustomed to trench warfare.

13. 1.2 the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers Trench System • Trenches ran from the English Channel to the Swiss border – about 780 KM. • Allied Side – 3 Lines of trenches • German Side – “defence in depth” could have up to 10 lines of trenches – they had chosen the best defensive positions and intended on retaining them permanently.

14. Landscape of Trenches • No Man’s Land – disputed area between front line trenches. 10 m – Several hundred m in width. • Frontline (Firing) Trench – Where attacks were launched and attackers repelled. • Command Trench – Parallel to, 20 m behind Frontline trench. Gave access to dugout shelters & latrines. • Support Trench – up to 200m behind the frontline – soldiers ready to move up in defence/support, medical stations, supply depots and command posts. • Reserve Trench – 600 m behind frontline – had dugouts for reserves waiting to move up front.

15. Strong Point – Scattered in back areas were slit trenches for specialist weapons, mortars, and machine guns. • Communication trenches – Ran between each line of trenches, allowing movement of men and equipment to front and back. • Saps and Listening Posts – Allowed observation for early warnings of an attack. • Barbed wire – Erected on steel posts in front of the trenches. Prevented a barrier to stop enemy from getting close enough to throw bombs into trenches. • Salient – Area of front line jutting into enemy side – particularly vulnerable.

16. Trench Features • Sandbags – Earth excavated from trench was used to fill sandbags and reinforce trenches • Parapet – Front of trench was reinforced with sandbags/other materials to a height of about 50cm. • Parados – Back of trench heightened to protect soldiers from enemy fire/artillery behind the trench • Firing Step – Built along the front wall, allows soldiers to fire through loopholes or between sandbags • Loop Holes – Some trenches had spaces for firing through parapet • Revetment – Trench walls often reinforced with materials – corrugated iron/wooden planks • Duck boards – used to floor a trench, attempt to keep soldiers feet out of mud/water • Dugouts – Shelters dug into ground, accommodation for officers. Deep enough or reinforced with concrete (many German ones) provide effective shelter during artillery bombardment • Funk Holes – Conditions allowed, soldiers excavated shelter or sleeping spaces in sides of trenches • Breastworks – When ground was unsuitable for excavation, trenches had to be constructed above ground by piling soil in sand bags or erected any available material to a height suitable for shelter.

20. The Soldiers Experience • A soldier did not spend all of his time at the front line. Divisions were rotated in and out of the front to keep the men as fresh as possible. • Typically, this meant spending 4 days in the frontline, 12 days in support/reserve and 14 days “in the rear” performing other duties or on leave. During battles this would vary greatly. • Training – Training emphasized discipline, marching, bayonet practice and other routines. • Work – Soldiers might spend considerable time engaged in hard work – mess/latrine duty or assisting the loading/delivery of food/ammunition to the front. • Transporting food to the front was a major problem – affecting the food and its nutritional value – it would take 8 days for a loaf of bread to reach the frontline.

21. British troops in a frontline trench--waiting for whatever will happen next.

22. A German hiding in a shell crater in No Man's Land prepares to toss a hand grenade. The distance between opposing trenches varied greatly along the Front from as little as 60 feet to as much as a mile.

23. Frontline duty • (1) Stand to – Hour before dawn, soldiers stood on firing shelf, weapon loaded, bayonet fixed, in anticipation of an enemy attack. • (2) Stand down – Issue of “black” rum Breakfast consisted of tea, bacon and bread, heating over “stoves”. Day’s activities consisted of: cleaning weapons, trench repairs, letter writing. Monotony and boredom combines with the mental strain of staying alert for grenades, shells, gas attack, sniper fire • (3) Stand to – Hour before sundown, soldiers stood on the alert on the firing step once more • (4) Stand down – Another issue of rum. Night’s activities might include: fixing barbed wire, patrolling no mans land, raiding enemy trenches or bringing up supplies. Those on guard duty at night were exposed to sniper fire.

24. An attack • (1) Briefing – Soldiers briefed by divisional or battalion commander. • (2) Moving up – Before a major attack, a soldier would be given an opportunity to write to their loved ones. • (3) Going over the top – Reserve trenches and frontline, soldiers would wait for the final order to “go over the top” then they would be exposed to direct enemy fire. • Rest - Troops who came out of the front line were given a rest period: rest, showers, and better food. Also might mean manual labour. • Leave – Soldier may be given a short leave to go home. • Hospitalisation – “Blighty” = injured enough to go home. If recovered, they would be sent back to the front.

25. Canadian soldier suffering the burns from mustard gas that turns to liquid when it touches the soft tissue  World War I soldiers recuperating at Walter Reed Hospital in August 1918. Australian Troops in a Hospital Ward in the Middle East.

26. Aggression on the Frontline • Even when there was no attack, the frontline was a dangerous place to be due to the aggressive approach the commanders insisted on the soldier’s maintaining. • Weapons & tactics were developed to ensure this happened: • 1914 – The BEF used 70 grenades per week • By 1916, BEF was being issued with 800,000 grenades per week • 1916 – Orders “To harass Germans in every possible way” • Raids – night attacks on enemy trenches. • Sniping was a tactic of mutual harassment. 1915 – each battalion had 25 specialist snipers, with telescopic sighted rifles with a 2000m range. • As a result, a third of all casualties in the trenches occurred during the normal daily routine.

27. Casualties • 7000 men killed and wounded on each side, every day of the war. • Western front – 4/9 men were casualties. 1/3 of these died. • Many men “died of wounds.” Wounds became septic in six hours. Gangrene was fatal in 44% of cases. • Disease was rampant. • Crowded and unsanitary conditions. • Unburied dead, human excreta and horse manure encouraged plague of flies • “Trench Fever” was contracted from lice that infested soldier’s uniforms. • In early stages of war men reporting trench fever were treated as malingerers. • Poor nutrition, dampness and exposure contributed to many causes of pneumonia and bronchitis.

28. Infectious diseases: diarrhoea, dysentery, typhus and influenza thrived in crowded and cramped living conditions. • Most hospital admissions came from excess of weather, cold and damp. Number of cases of “foot rot” or “trench foot.” • Strain of constant fear and lack of sleep – rise in mental illness. During the war, British identified 80,000 men suffering from shell shock. • Shell shock is a psychological or emotional condition caused by prolonged experiences of artillery barrages. • Shell shock was not accepted or identified at first – treated as cowardice/malingering. • 1922 Great Britain had registered 50,000 Great War ‘mental cases’

30. 1.3 Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele Verdun, 1916 • Eastern border of France surrounded by thirteen massive concrete forts. • Most structure was underground and guns had been removed by French • Falkenhayn originally hoped to break the French army by forcing it to defend Verdun – correct in his assessment that they would fight to the death to defend Verdun, for its strategic position and historical status as a great French fortress.

31. Search for a breakthrough 1915-1916

33. Began massive bombardment of the French defences in February 1916, using 1400 heavy guns to draw French defenders in and then use artillery to inflict huge numbers of casualties and “bleed the French army to death.” • General Petain was given the job of defending Verdun – the resistance of it became symbolic in the eyes of the French, Petain – “They shall not pass.”

34. French soldiers of the 87th Regiment, 6th Division, at Côte 304, (Hill 304), northwest of Verdun, 1916.

35. French soldiers at Verdun

37. French trucks are lined up as they move to the front along the Sacred Way.

38. He co-ordinated the movement of soldiers and supplies among La VoieSacree (The Sacred Way) the only road in and out of Verdun. • 6000 vehicles a day used the road, despite intensive German shelling the road was never closed. • Germans called off their attack in July, 1916 – fighting went on around Verdun until December • The town of Verdun was destroyed. Germans fired 23 million shells at the French positions. • The Germans did not break the French resistance.

40. Summary • 1. The Battle of Verdun 21st February- 18th December 1916 • Aim: attrition • Site: Verdun, a series of old fortresses near the German-French boarder that were not very well defended and had no rail supply. General Falkenhayn chosen Verdun, a historically significant place for France where he knew French troops would defend till the end • TheCampaign: German bombarded the French with shells, especially gas. Heavy attacks continued through to July. Though the aim was to deplete the French forces, the Germans ended up wearing out their own also • Casualties: 315 000 French, 281 000 Germans, both military commanders were replaced, French morale was starting to decline heavily http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=4oabxoP_jVM#t=35

41. Multimedia http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=4oabxoP_jVM#t=35

43. The Somme, 1916 • First day of the Somme, was in casualties, perhaps the worst ever in the history of the British army. • Somme resulted in Britain’s new armies of volunteers being thrown into the war with the result of an enormous cost in lives, the destruction of the “finest flower of Britain’s young generation.” • Before Verdun, Haig and Joffre had agreed that the British would stage an attack on the Somme River with French support – Verdun changed this. Somme was mainly a British battle. • Proposed reasons for the Somme battle: • The Somme offensive was needed to help the French and force the Germans to take pressure off Verdun. • Haig sought to achieve a breakthrough on the Somme to break the stalemate on the Western Front. • The attack on the Somme was designed to wear down the German defenders, until a few weeks later; the main breakthrough would be launched at Ypres in Belgium.

44. July 1st – November 18th • Proceeded by weeklong bombardment of German trenches in which one and a half million shells were fired – designed to destroy German barbed wire and wipe out front line trenches. This was not effective as Germans new of the attack and prepared accordingly with 12m underground chambers. • Many historians emphasised the overconfidence and poor confidence of high command that lead to 57,000 British casualties in one day; the instructions towards the soldiers were that they could walk across no man’s land, smoking their cigarettes/pipes and take possession of the empty trenches as no Germans would have survived the barrage. • The troops were ordered to advance slowly, in line abreast as on a parade ground, allowing German machine gunners to emerge and mow them down. • Prior & Wilson argue the vast majority of British casualties did not meet their fate like this.

46. A ration party of the Royal Irish Rifles in a communication trench during the Battle of the Somme.

47. “If the [British] artillery had done their job it mattered little if the infantry walked or ran or executed the Highland fling across no man’s land.” – Prior & Wilson • The British did not achieve any of Haig’s targets for the first two days. • Still, the British commander persisted and the offensive continued. • Results of the Somme • Allied: 620,000 German: 500,000 = accepted figures • Kitchener’s “new armies” the volunteers of 1914, were virtually wiped out • British line advanced a mere 15 Km in its furthest extent • Feb 1917 – Germans withdrew to their newly completed Hindenburg Line of fortifications.

48. An early model British Mark I "male" tank, named C-15, near Thiepval, 25 September 1916.

49. Summary • 2. The Battle of the Somme 1st July- 18th November 1916 • Aim: To break through German lines, date was pushed forward to help relieve pressure off the French at Verdun • Site: The Somme River Valley (very silly idea, as Germans would be on higher ground) • The Campaign: The week of heavy bombardment completely destroyed the landscape, making it very muddy when the rains came. British used tanks unsuccessfully for the first time. Australians arrived from Gallipoli, and in the first day of their first major battle (at Fromelles) on 19th July they lost 5000 men. The battle turned into one of attrition, making it a failure for all with the British only making small dents in the German lines. • Causalities: 418 000 British, 194 000 French, 650 000 Germans • 60% of the AIF were casualties • The Allies gained 10.5km, breaking it down: 77metres per day, 3000 casualties a day, or 40 men per metre, or one man for every 2.5cm of ground gained.

50. Multimedia The Battle of the Somme: From Defeat to Victory: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cK5xL6QBM0 Line of Fire: The Battle of the Somme: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yPD9sldu6ZE The Somme: Here Comes Kitchener’s Army: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy3Eg0c15RU