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Chapter 2

Chapter 2. The Counseling Profession’s Past, Present and Future. Understanding the Human Condition: From Early Antiquity to the Present. Since dawn of existence, people have attempted to understand the human condition Shamans

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Chapter 2

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  1. Chapter 2 The Counseling Profession’s Past, Present and Future

  2. Understanding the Human Condition: From Early Antiquity to the Present • Since dawn of existence, people have attempted to understand the human condition • Shamans • Egyptian papyrus (3330BCE)—attempt to understand functions of the brain • Early philosophers • Hippocrates (460-377BCE): Offered suggestions for treatment of human condition: for melancholia he recommended sobriety, a regular and tranquil life, exercise short of fatigue, and bleeding, if necessary. For hysteria, he recommended getting married!

  3. Understanding the Human Condition: From Early Antiquity to the Present • Early philosophers (cont’d) • Monotheistic religions: Old Testament, New Testament, Quran, and other religious text speak to how to “treat” suffering • Plotinus (205-270): Soul separate from the body (dualistic understanding of mind and body) • Descartes (1596-1650) and James Mill (1773-1836): Mind a blank slate upon which ideas become generated.

  4. A Brief History of Related Helping Professions: Social Work, Psychology, Psychiatry • These three professions originated in the 19th century and all impacted on the counseling field • Over the years, they have maintained their unique identities, but have all moved to many of the same theoretical conclusions. • Today, they, along with the counseling profession, can be seen on slightly different, yet parallel paths • See Figure 2.1, p. 35

  5. The Social Work Profession Historical Background Historical Background 1940s-1950s: focus on family and social systems e.g., Virginia Satir 1955: NASW 1965 ACSW Today, social workers found in a wide variety of settings • Poor Laws (1500s) • Charity Organization Societies (COSs) • “Friendly visitors” • Settlement movement • Jane Addams/Hull House • All of above led to social casework, group work, community, first social work programs

  6. Social Work’s Influence on the Counseling Profession • Systems: Family and social systems perspective has become required focus by CACREP • Field experience: Practicum, Internship, and other “field experiences” today seen as critical in counseling programs • Advocacy and Social Justice: Social work’s focus on advocacy and social justice has become an important ingredient for the counseling profession

  7. The Psychology Profession • Historical Background (Early Basis of Psychology) • Greek philosophers • Hippocrates: Focused on how to treat mental illness • Plato (427-347BCE): Introspection and reflection—road to knowledge; dreams and fantasies—substitute satisfactions; human condition: physical, moral and spiritual origins • Aristotle (384-322BCE): Considered “first psychologist” used objectivity and reason to study knowledge • Augustine (354-430) and Aquinas (1225-1274): highlighted consciousness, self-examination, and inquiry • Focus on Christianity during Augustine and Aquinas times limited the psychological nature of people

  8. The Psychology Profession • Historical Background (1800s) • Europe: First experimental psychologists studied similarities and differences of people • E.g.,: Wundt and Galton • 1800s in U.S.: experimental psychologists • James Cattell & G. Stanley Hall (1st president of APA) • Williams James’ theory of philosophical pragmatism: truth and reality is continually constructed • Testing: Binet, vocational assessment, personality tests • Mesmer (mesmerize), Charcot (hypnosis) • Psychoanalysis and Freud

  9. The Psychology Profession • Historical Background (late 1800s to 1900s) • 1892: APA • Other schools arise: • Pavlov (classical conditioning); Phenomenology psychology; Existentialism psychology; Gestalt psychology • Above schools led to today’s cognitive-behavioral and existential-humanistic therapies • Mid 1940’s: Division 17 (counseling psychology) • Today: experimental psychologists, clinical and counseling psychologists, school psychologists, psychologists in business and industrial organizations

  10. Psychology’s Influence on the Counseling Profession • Probably influenced counseling most of all professions • Gave us the first comprehensive approaches to counseling and therapy • Tests developed by psychologist used by early vocational counselors and other counselors today • Research techniques • Early development of counseling skills

  11. The Field of Psychiatry • Historical Background • Mental illness originally: mystical, demonic--treatment horrific • Pinel (late 1700s): Founder of psychiatry; one of first to view mental illness from a scientific perspective • Other well known psychiatrists: • Kraepelin (early classification system) • Charcot and Janet: relationship between disorders and the mind • Rush and Dix: Advocated for humane treatment of mentally ill (see Box 2.1, p. 40) • Assoc. of Medical Superintendents of Am. Institutions for Insane—Forerunner of APA (1844)

  12. The Field of Psychiatry • Historical Background • Early 1900s: Many psychiatrists into psychoanalysis, some move toward psychobiology, some toward social psychiatry • 1950s and 1960s: Expansion of psychotropics • 1950s: DSM-I, Today DSM-IV-TR; 2013: DSM-5 • 1960s: Psychiatrists needed to work in Community Based Mental Health Centers after “Donaldson v. O’Connor) • Today: Mental illness predominantly or partially biological • Today: Psychiatrists often consult with counselors

  13. Psychiatry’s Influence on the Counseling Profession • Diagnosis • Illnesses may be organic • Psychopharmacology

  14. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Precursors to the Counseling Profession: The 1800s • Read quote, top of p. 41 • Beginning of Counseling Influenced by: • Social Reform Movement of the 1800s • John Dewey writings in education • More humane treatment of the mentally ill • Social Workers who worked with poor and destitute

  15. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Beginning of Counseling Movement Influenced by: • Need for Vocational Guidance in the late 1800s • Traced all the way back to: Sanchez de Arevalo (1468)--Mirror of Men’s Lives • Testing • Binet Intelligence test • Group tests (e.g., special and multiple aptitude testing) • Others • Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: Turn of 20th Century • Offered a “psychological view” of people

  16. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Vocational Guidance Movement—early 1900s • Jesse Davis, Anna Reed, Eli Weaver • Frank Parsons and Spread of Vocational Guidance • Influenced by Jane Addams • Man with a vision—”Founder” of guidance in America • Vocational Guidance: 3-part process, see top of p. 44 • Established Vocational Bureau • Led to establishment of NVGA • John Brewer • Wagner-O’Day Act • “Vocational” & “Guidance” counselors are first counselors

  17. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Counseling and Expansion of Testing Movement (1900-1950) • Army Alpha (see Box 2.2, p. 45) • Strong Interest Inventory • Woodworth’s Personal Data Sheet • Group testing and vocational guidance • Some tests used in vocational guidance, other tests later used in school and agency counseling

  18. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Spread of Psychotherapy--Impact on Counseling (1900-1950) • Clifford Beers: A Mind that Found Itself: • Congress passed laws to improve mental hospitals • End of WWI, doughboys, PTSD • Need for more helpers • E. G. Williamson’s Minnesota Point of View (trait and factory theory) • Humanists fleeing Europe • Carl Rogers and Rochester Guidance Clinic • All of the above influenced the burgeoning counseling field as counselors moved from schools into other areas

  19. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • The 1950s: Emergence, Expansion, and Diversification • Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy • Developmental theories of counseling arise: career counseling, child development, lifespan development Sputnik and NDEA • End of WWII and college counseling • 1945: AAMFC—later AAMFT • 1950s: NASW • Division 17 of APA • APGA • ASCA, ACES, ACDA, ARCA, C-AHEAD

  20. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • 1960s: Increased Diversification • Ellis • Behavioral: Bandura, Wolpe, Krumboltz • Glasser’s Reality Therapy • Gestalt: Perls • Existential: Arbuckle, Frankl, May • Expansion of services: Johnson’s Great Society • Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963 • NDEA expanded • Other federal acts • APGA’s 1961 1st ethical code • Precursors of CACREP • More ACA divisions and branches: NECA, AACE, State branches

  21. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • Continued Proliferation: 1970s • Donaldson v. O’Connor (see Box 2.3, p. 44) • Expansion of Community Mental Health Centers Act (12 services) • Rehabilitation Act • PL 94-142 • Microcounseling skills training • Multicultural Counseling: Sue, Pedersen, Cross, Atkinson • ACES draft of standards for counseling programs • CORE • NACMHC • Virginia: First state to have licensing • New Divisions: AMCD, ASERVIC, ASGW, IAAOC, AMHCA

  22. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • 1980s-2000: Recent Changes • CACREP (1981) • NBCC started NCC (1982) • IAMFC: certification for family therapists (1994) • Increased focus on multicultural issues • AMCD: Multicultural Counseling Competencies (1991) • Focus on: ethics, supervision, teaching, & online counseling • ACPA disaffiliates • AMHCA and ASCA threaten disaffiliation • APGA becomes AACD (1983) then ACA (1992) • New divisions: ACEG, AADA, IAMFC ACCA, AGLBIC, CSJ

  23. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • The New Millennium: 2000 and On • Expansion of NCC • Over 45,000 NCCs • Specialty certifications in: Clinical mental health counseling, school counseling, addictions counseling • Licensing in all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and DC • Divisions become increasingly independent (not separate) of ACA • ASCA National Model • New divisions: ACC and CSJ • Importance of Evidence-Based Practice

  24. The Counseling Profession:Its History and Trends • The New Millennium: 2000 and On (Cont’d) • Multicultural Counseling know considered “fourth force” • Focus on Social Justice Advocacy • 2003: ACA endorses Advocacy Competencies • Fifth Force? • Focus on Crisis, Disaster, and Trauma Training • 2005: New Ethics Code • 2010: 20/20 Standards (see bottom of p. 54)

  25. Do We Have to Memorize All Those Names? A Developmental Perspective • We are what we are because of our past. • Why not strive to understand from whence we came, and attempt to make smart, conscious choices about our future. • It’s not easy taking a hard look at oneself, and it is difficult memorizing all those names! • See Table 2.1, pp. 56-58

  26. Multicultural/Social Justice Focus • Learning from the Past, Moving Toward the Future • Are we moving fast enough? • Today we must: • Ensure all students are trained in the Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Advocacy Competencies • Ensure all students are working on their biases • Ensure that all students have the knowledge and skills to be culturally competent • Provide vehicles for increased scholarship, especially outcome research relative to social justice and cross-cultural counseling

  27. Ethical, Professional, and Legal Issues • Ethics: Changing over time • Prior ethical codes tells us where we’ve been • New ethical codes tell us where we are and point us in the direction of the future • Must be aware of our ethical codes

  28. The Counselor in Process • Looking Back, Looking Ahead, and Embracing Paradigm Shifts • Our history tells us about where we have been • Our history shows us our paradigm shifts • But, where are we now? • What new paradigm shifts might be occurring now?

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